3. Samāsa kaṇḍa

Warning

This chapter is still under development and has only been partially translated.

Samāsalakkhaṇādi (Characteristics of compound words)

202. Nāmānaṃ samāso yuttatthotyadhikāro. (Governing rule for the relationship between the meaning of a compound and the constituent nouns)

Samāsoti bhinnatthānaṃ padāna mekatthatā. Yuttatthoti aññamaññasambandhattho.

Vibhāsātyadhikātabbaṃ vākyatthaṃ.

Samāso is a compound word with a single meaning derived from the constituent nouns. Yuttattho (connection meaning) refers to the meaning derived from the relationship connecting one noun to another in the compound.

Sometimes the meaning of the compound will depend on context.

Kammadhārayasamāsa (Kammadhāraya compound)

‘‘Mahanto ca so vīro cā’’ti vākye –

Consider the example of “Mahanto ca so vīro cā” (He is both great and a hero)

Dvipade tulyādhikaraṇe kammadhārayo. (a “kammadhāraya” consists of two words with the same inflection form)

Bhinnappavattinimittā saddā ekasmiṃ vatthuni pavattā tulyādhikaraṇā, visesanavisesassabhūtā samānādhikaraṇā dve padā yadā samasyante, tadā so samāso kammadhārayo

Nāma, idha vā samāsasuttāni saññādvārena samāsavidhāyakāni.

Aggahitavisesanā buddhi visessamhi na uppajjatīti visesanaṃ pubbaṃ hoti, samāseneva tulyādhikaraṇattassa vuttattā tappakāsanatthaṃ payuttā samāsato atirittā ca so iccete ‘‘vuttaṭṭhānamappayogo’’ti ñāyā nappayujjante. Evamaññatra.

A Kammadhāraya compound consists of two or more words with the same inflection form joined together and spoken as one word and referring to a single entity. One member word is a noun that distinguishes the entity, and the other member word is an adjective that qualifies it.

The following are rules and operations for creating the compound representing the entity.

The qualifier (adjective) usually comes before, as the entity is not understood without its qualifier. The compound usually takes on the same morphological form (multiplicity, gender and case) as the entity it is referring to. The words “ca” and “so” are not used in the compound as they are redundant, following the rule of “vuttaṭṭhānamappayogo”

Tesaṃ vibhattiyo lopā ca. (elide vibhatti (case endings))

Tesaṃ yuttatthānaṃ samāsānaṃ pubbuttarapadānaṃ vibhattī lupyante, cakārena kvaci na.

Tato mahanta vīra iti ca rūpappasaṅge –

The case endings of members of a compound before the last member are dropped, though sometimes they may be retained.

The result for our example:

Mahanto ca so vīro cā = mahanta vīra

Pakati cassa sarantassa. (original form for words ending in a vowel)

Vibhattīsu luttāsu sarantassa pubbabhūtassa, parabhūtassa ca assa samāsapadassa pakati hotītīha luttākārā punānīyante.

Tato mahanta vīraiti ṭhite –

‘‘Mahataṃ mahā tulyādhikaraṇe pade’’ti mahantassa mahā.

When vibhatti (case endings) are dropped, if the prior state of a member word ends in a vowel, the word is stripped to it’s natural form.

“mahanta” becomes “mahā” in accordance to Kaccāyana rule “Mahataṃ mahā tulyādhikaraṇe pade”:

mahanta vīra = mahā vīra

Taddhita samāsa kitakā nāmaṃvātavetunādīsu ca. (Taddhita, compound, and kitaka word are treated like nouns)

Taddhitādayo nāmaṃ iva daṭṭhabbā taveppabhutipaccaye vajjetvā.

Tato vatticchāya syādi. Mahāvīro, mahāvīrāiccādi.

Noun derivatives (tadhitta affixes), other compound words and primary derivatives (kita affixes) are treated like nouns.

Then, as desired, add vibhatti endings.

mahā vīra = Mahāvīro, mahāvīrā, etc.

Kammadhārayo dvando ca, tappuriso ca lābhino.

Tayo parapade liṅgaṃ, bahubbīhi padantare.

Kammadhāraya, dvanda, and tappurisa members adopt the gender of the following word. Bahubbīhi compounds follow the gender of the constituent words.

Rattā ca sā paṭī cāti rattapaṭī, mahantī ca sā saddhā cāti mahāsaddhā. Ettha ‘‘kammadhārayasaññe ce’’ti pubbapade pumeva kate āīpaccayānaṃ nivutti.

Rattā ca sā paṭī = rattapaṭī (“red cloth”)
mahantī ca sā saddhā = mahāsaddhā (“great faith”)

The above words become masculine in gender following Kaccāyana rule “kammadhārayasaññe ce”.

Nīlañca taṃ uppalañcāti nīluppalaṃ, satthīva satthi, satthi ca sā sāmā cāti satthisāmā. Mukhameva cando mukhacando.

Visesanavisessānaṃ yathecchattā kvaci visesanaṃ paraṃ hoti, khattiyabhūtoiccādi, icchā ca yathātanti.

Nīlañca taṃ uppalaṁ = nīluppalaṃ (“blue lotus”)
satthīva satthi, satthi ca sā sāmā = satthisāmā (“dark-thighed”)
mukhameva cando = mukhacando (“moon face”)

Sometimes the quantifier follows the noun according to preference, as in “khattiyabhūto” (“Khattiya born”) etc.

Ubhe tappurisa samāsa (Dual-classification tappurisa compounds)

Translator’s note: According to Kaccāyana, kammadhāraya and digu compounds are also clasified as tappurisa compounds, hence they have “dual” classification.

Nasaddā si, tassa lopo. Na suro asuro.

Ettha kammadhāraye kate – ‘‘ubhe tappurisā’’ti tappurisasaññā. ‘‘Attannassa tappurise’’ti nassa a. Na asso anasso. Ettha ‘‘sare ana’’ti nassa ana.

Elision of “na” sound:

na suro = asuro (“not a god”)

Here the constructed kammadhāraya compound is actually a tappurisa compound due to the Kaccāyana rule “ubhe tappurisā”. The “n” in “na” is elided in accordance to Kaccāyana rule “Attannassa tappurise”.

na asso - anasso (“not a horse”)

Here “na” (before a word starting with vowel) becomes “ana” in accordance to Kaccāyana rule “sare ana”.

‘‘Nāmānaṃ samāso’’ti sutte dvidhākate ayuttatthānampi kvaci samāso. Na puna geyyā apunageyyā gāthetyādi. Ettha geyyena sambandho na-saddo ayuttatthenāpi punena yogavibhāgabalā samasyate.

In the Kaccāyana rule “nāmānaṃ samāso” a compound can sometimes be created even when an unrelated word separates two related words.

na puna geyyā = apunageyyā (“not to be sung again”)

Here, the word “na” is compounded with the unrelated conjunction “puna” (again) which separates “na” from “geyyā”.

Digusamāsa (Digu compounds)

Tayo lokā samāhaṭā tilokaṃ.

Ettha ‘‘saṅkhyāpubbo digū’’ti kammadhārayassa digusaññā. ‘Digussekattaṃ’’ti ekattaṃ, napuṃsakattañca.

Tayo lokā = tilokaṃ (the three worlds)

Here, according to the Kaccāyana rule “saṅkhyāpubbo digū”, the kammadhāraya compound is classified as a digu compound. According to the rule “digussekattaṃ”, it becomes singular and neuter.

Suddhatappurisasamāsa (Pure tappurisa compounds)

Tappurisā tveva.

See translator’s note above. Digu compounds are also classified as tappurisa compounds.

Amādayo parapadehi. (“ṁ” followed by word)

Dutiyantādayo parapadehi nāmehi yadā samasyante, tadā so samāso tappuriso nāma.

Gāmaṃ gato gāmagato.

‘‘Passa vāsiṭṭha gāmaṃ, gato tisso sāvatthiṃ’’tya trāyuttatthatāya na samāso. Tathā ññatra ñeyyaṃ.

Words in 2nd form (typically ending with “ṁ”) joined to following words (eg. nouns) are called “tappurisa” compounds.

gāmaṃ gato = gāmagato (“gone to the village”)

Exception:

passa vāsiṭṭha gāmaṃ, gato tisso sāvatthiṃ (“Look, Vāsiṭṭha, at the village; Tissa has gone to Sāvatthī) (here, “gāmaṃ” + “gato” are unrelated and hence cannot be joined into a compound)

Raññā hato rājahato.

Raññā hato = rājahato (“regicide”)

Translator’s note: “raññā” is “rāja” in 2nd form, and hence after elision of morphological form reverts to it’s original form.

Kiccantehi bhīyo adhikatthavacane. (kicca-affixed words emphasise the excessive meaning of a phrase)

Tabba, anīya, ṇya, teyya, riccappaccayā kiccā. Thutinindatthamajjhāropitatthaṃ vacanaṃ adhikatthavacanaṃ. Soṇaleyyo kūpoiccādi. Soṇehi yathā liyhate, tathā puṇṇattā thuti. Tehi ucchiṭṭhattā nindā ca.

kicca-affixed nouns are verbal derivatives typically ending with the following affixes:

-tabba
-anīya
-ṇya
-teyya
-ricca

They are called “adhikatthavacana” as they can be used to express praise (“thuti”) or blame (“nindā”) from an excessive condition.

Example:

Soṇaleyyo kūpo (“a well that dogs lick”)

This implies a praise (“thuti”) that the well is so full even dogs can lick the water from it. It can also be a blame (“nindā”) that the water should be rejected.

Dadhinā upasittaṃ bhojanaṃ dadhibhojanaṃ, samāsapadeneva upasittakriyāya kathanā natthetthāyuttatthatā. Upasittasaddāppayogo pubbeva.

Dadhinā upasittaṃ bhojanaṃ = dadhibhojanaṃ (“food sprinkled with curd”)

In the above example, the action of sprinkling (“upasitta”) is implied in the relationship between the words, and therefore elided from the compound.

Karaṇe tu-asinā kalaho asikalaho.

Instrument of action:

asinā kalaho = asikalaho (“sword fight”)

Buddhassa deyyaṃ buddhaddeyyaṃ, parassapadaṃ, ettha vibhatyalopo. Evaṃ attanopadamiccādi.

A phrase expressed in an active voice (“parassapada”), after elision of vibhatti ending from “buddhassa” to “buddha”, changes to a reflective voice (“attanopada”):

buddhassa deyyaṃ = buddhaddeyyaṃ (“gift for Buddha”)

Corasmā bhayaṃ corabhayaṃ. Evaṃ baddhanamuttoccādi.

A reason or cause bound to a word:

corasmā bhayaṃ = corabhayaṃ (“fear of thieves”)

Rañño putto rājaputto.

Ownership:

rañño putto = rājaputto (“king’s son”)

‘‘Brāhmaṇassa kaṇhā dantā’’ iccatra dantāpekkhā chaṭṭhīti kaṇhena sambandhābhāvā na samāso. Yadā tu kaṇhā ca te dantā ceti kammadhārayo, tadā chaṭṭhī kaṇhadantāpekkhāti brāhmaṇakaṇhadantāti samāso hoteva.

Exception:

Brāhmaṇassa kaṇhā dantā (“dark brahmin’s teeth”)

Here, the words cannot be joined into a compound due to lack of direct relation between kaṇhā (“dark”) to dantā (“teeth”). However, if interpreted as a description of the darkened colour of the brahmin’s teeth, it can form a compound:

brāhmaṇassa kaṇhā dantā = brāhmaṇakaṇhadantā (“brahmin’s black teeth”)

‘‘Rañño māgadhassa dhana’’ ntyatra raññoti chaṭṭhī dhana mapekkhate, na māgadhaṃ. Rājā eva māgadhasaddena vuccateti bhedābhāvā sambandhābhāvoti tulyādhikaraṇena māgadhena saha rājā na samasyate. Dviṭṭho hi sambandho.

Rañño māgadhassa dhana (“wealth of the Magadhan king”)

Here, “rañño” and “māgadhassa” are both in 6th form and denotes the owner of “dhana” (wealth). Since “māgadha” itself refers to the king, due to the absence of relationship to “dhana”, it is not compounded with “dhana”. The are two relations in this phrase.

”Rañño asso puriso ce” tya tra rañño asso, rañño puriso ti ca paccekaṃ sambandhato sāpekkhatā atthīti na samāso. ‘‘Asso ca puriso cā’’ti dvande kate tu rājassapurisāti hoteva, aññānapekkhattā.

Rañño asso puriso ce (“if the king’s horse is a person”)

Here, “rañño asso” (king’s horse) and “rañño puriso” (king’s person) each have separate relationships to the king, so no compound is formed. However, if “asso” and “puriso” are treated as a pair (“asso ca puriso ca”), then it can form a compound together with the genitive “rañño”, as there’s no other relationship:

rājassapurisā (“king’s horses and men”)

‘‘Rañño garuputto’’ iccatra rājāpekkhinopi garuno

Puttena saha samāso, gamakattā. Gamakattampi samāsassa nibandhanaṃ. Tattha garuno puttoti viggaho, evamaññatra.

rañño garuputto (king’s teacher’s son)

Here, even though garu (“teacher”) can refer to rañño (“king”), it compounds with putto (“son”) due to its indicative nature (it refers to the subject, which is the son), which binds it to the compound, and the compound resolves to garuno putto (“teacher’s son”), and similarly in other cases.

Rūpe saññā rūpasaññā.

rūpe saññā = rūpasaññā (“perception of matter”)

Kvaci nindāyaṃ - kūpe maṇḍūko viya kūpamaṇḍūko. Evaṃ nagarakāko iccādi. Atropamāya nindā gamyate.

Sometimes used in a derogatory sense:

kūpe maṇḍūko = kūpamaṇḍūko (“well frog” implying narrow-mindedness)
nagara + kāko = nagarakāko (“urban crow”)

It can also be used in self-criticism.

Antevāsiko tyādo vibhattyalopo.

In words like “antevāsiko” (pupil), there is elision of vibhatti ending.

Bahubbīhisamāsa (Bahubbīhi compounds)

218. Aññapadatthesu bahubbīhi. (“bahubbīhi” refers to other meanings of words)

Appaṭhamantāna maññesaṃ padānaṃ atthesu dve vā bahūni vā nāmāni yadā samasyante, tadā so samāso bahubbīhi nāmia.

When two or more nouns are compounded to express a different concept from that of the primary meaning of the various joined words, it is called a bahubbīhi compound, ie. a metaphor.

Āgatā samaṇā yaṃ sā āgatasamaṇo, vihāro.

Āgatā samaṇā = āgatasamaṇo (refers to a monastery (“vihāro”) where “samaṇā (renunciants) have come to”)

Jitāni indriyāni yena so jitindriyo, bhagavā. Āhito aggi yena so āhitaggi. Agyāhito vātyādo yathecchaṃ visesanassa paratā.

Jitāni indriyāni = jitindriyo (refers to the “Bhagavā” who have subjugated the senses)
Āhito aggi = āhitaggi or alternately “agyāhito”(one who has accepted the role of “keeper of the sacred fire”, used as an adjective expressing abstinence)

Karaṇe tu-chinno rukkho yena so chinnarukkho, pharasu.

As an instrument of action:

chinno rukkho = chinnarukkho (an axe (“pharasu”) that can be used to “cut a tree”)

Dinno suṅko yassa so dinnasuṅko, rājā.

Dinno suṅko = dinnasuṅko (a king (“rājā”) to whom “tax is paid”)

Niggatā janā yasmā so niggatajano, gāmo.

niggatā janā = niggatajano (a village (“gāmo”) that someone has come from, ie. “hometown”)

Dasa balāni yassa so dasabalo, bhagavā. Natthi samo yassa so asamo. Ettha ‘‘attannassā’’ti yogavibhāgena nassa a.

dasa balāni = dasabalo (refers to the Bhagavā, who is endowed with 10 supernatural powers)
natthi samo = asamo (name of a deity that has “no equal”)

In the above example “na” is converted to “a” in accordance to Kaccāyana rule “attannassā”

Pahūtā jivhā yassa so pahūtajivho, mahantī paññā yassa so mahāpañño. Dvīsu ‘‘itthiyambhāsitapumitthīpumāva ce’’ti pumbhāvātidesā pubbuttarapadesu āīppaccayānamabhāvo.

pahūtā jivhā = pahūtajivho (one who has a “large tongue”, a reference to one of the 32 characteristics of a great man, ie. the Buddha)
mahantī paññā = mahāpañño (one who has great wisdom, i.e. the Buddha)

In both examples above, masculine gender is applied to the members of the compounds preceeding the last member of the compound and replaces the feminine suffixes ā and ī in accordance to Kaccāyana rule “itthiyambhāsitapumitthīpumāva ce”

‘‘Kvaci samāsantagatānamakāranto’’ti antassa attaṃ. Kāraggahaṇena ā i ca. Itthiyamivaṇṇantā, tvantehi ca kappaccayopi. Yathā - visālaṃ akkhi yassa so visālakkho, paccakkhadhammā, silopo. Sobhano gandho yassa so sugandhi. Bahukantiko, bahunadiko, samuddo. Ettha yadādinā rasso. Bahukattuko. Mattā bahavo mātaṅgā yasmiṃ taṃ mattabahumātaṅgaṃ, vanaṃ.

According to Kaccāyana rule “Kvaci samāsantagatānamakāranto”, sometimes the ending of a compound is modified. Feminine endings with the letters “ā” or “i” are replaced with a “ka” suffix.

Examples:

visālaṃ akkhi = visālakkho (“one who has wide eyes”, ie. perceptive)
paccakkhaṃ dhammā = paccakkhadhammā (an awakened being to whom the teaching is self evident or “dhamma is before the eyes”)

In the above the 1st form ending “si” is elided (from the member words preceeding the last member in the compound).

sobhano gandho = sugandhi (one who is attractive or “sweet smelling”)
bahukā + antiko = bahukantiko or bahukattuko (at the “end of many” rivers, ie. the ocean)

Here the ending vowel is shortened.

mattā bahavo mātaṅgā = mattabahumātaṅgaṃ (a forest, where there are many elephants)

Tulyādhikaraṇo.

Suvaṇṇassa viya vaṇṇo yassa so suvaṇṇavaṇṇo. Vajiraṃ pāṇimhi yassa so vajirapāṇi. Urasi lomāni yassa so urasilomo. Ettha vibhatyalopo.

‘‘Atthesū’’ti bahuttaggahaṇena kvaci paṭhamantānampi. Saha hetunā yo vattate so sahetuko, ‘‘yadā’’ dinā sahassa so.

[This rule describes compounds where the components are in the same case (tulyādhikaraṇa)]

One whose color is like that of gold is “golden-colored” (suvaṇṇavaṇṇo). One who has a thunderbolt (vajira) in hand (pāṇi) is “thunderbolt-handed” (vajirapāṇi). One who has hair (loma) on the chest (urasi) is “chest-haired” (urasilomo). Here, the case ending is dropped.

By using the plural “atthesu” (in meanings), sometimes even nominative case endings are dropped. One who exists (vattate) with a cause (hetu) is “with cause” (sahetuko). Here, “sa” replaces “saha” as in words like “yadā”.

Satta vā aṭṭha vā sattaṭṭha, māsā, etthaññapadattho vā saddassattho. Dakkhiṇassā ca pubbassā ca disāya yaṃ antarālaṃ, sā dakkhiṇapubbā, disā.

Seven or eight [together] is “seven-eight” (sattaṭṭha), [referring to] months. Here, either the meaning of another word or the meaning of the word itself [is understood]. The area between the southern and eastern direction is the “south-east” (dakkhiṇapubbā) direction.

Bhinnādhikaraṇo.

Appaṭhamantānanti kiṃ, desito buddhena yo dhammo.

“Bhinnādhikaraṇo” means “having different case relations” or “with different referents.”

“Appaṭhamantānanti kiṃ” means “Why is it stated ‘except for those ending in the first (nominative) case’?”

“desito buddhena yo dhammo” is an example sentence meaning “the Dhamma which was taught by the Buddha.”

The rule is explaining that compounds with different case relations (bhinnādhikaraṇa) are formed, but not with words in the nominative case. The example sentence demonstrates a compound where “buddhena” (by the Buddha) is in the instrumental case, while “dhammo” (the Dhamma) is in the nominative case, showing different case relations within the compound.

Dvandasamāsa (`dvanda` compounds)

227. Nāmānaṃ samuccayo dvando (`dvanda` compounds are collections of nouns)

Samuccayo, ti piṇḍīkaraṇaṃ ekavibhattikānaṃ nāmānaṃ yo samuccayo, so dvando nāma, idaṃ suttaṃ bahuvacanavisayaṃ.

Cando ca sūriyo ca candasūriyā. Tiṭṭhanti tyādi-

Kriyāsambandhasāmaññato atthetthāpekatthatā, evaṃ naranāriyo, akkharapadāni.

samuccayo is a collection of nouns with the same inflection forms. This collection is called “dvando” (“two and two” or “aggregation.” This rule applies to plural forms.

For example: “Cando ca sūriyo ca” (the moon and the sun) becomes “candasūriyā.” Like in “tiṭṭhanti” (they stand) and similar forms-

Due to the common relationship with the action, there is a unity of meaning here, as in [compounds like] “naranāriyo” (men and women), “akkharapadāni” (letters and words).

228. Tathā dvande pāṇi turiya yogga senaṅga khuddajantuka vividha viruddha visabhāgatthādīnañca (And in `dvanda` compounds for terms denoting various/diverse and dissimilar parts of the body, musical instruments, tools, army, small creatures, etc.)

pāṇi (body parts)
turiya (musical instruments)
yogga (connected parts of tools and equipment)
senaṅga (divisions of an army)
khuddajantuka (small creatures)

Vividhenākārena viruddhā vividhaviruddhā, sabhāgā sadisā, vividhā ca te sabhāgā ceti visabhāgā. Yathā digusamāse, tathā dvande pāṇyaṅgatthādīnaṃ ekattaṃ, napuṃsakattañca hoti.

Cakkhusotaṃ, gītavāditaṃ, yuganaṅgalaṃ, hatthassaṃ, asicammaṃ, ḍaṃsamakasaṃ, kokālūkaṃ.

Nāmarūpaṃ, nāmaṃ namanalakkhaṇaṃ, rūpaṃ ruppanalakkhaṇaṃ. Evamete dhammā lakkhaṇato vividhā, paramatthato sabhāgā ca.

Ādisaddenāññatthāpi. Yathā - bhinnaliṅgānaṃ - itthipumaṃ. Yadādinā rasso, dāsidāsaṃ, pattacīvaraṃ. Gaṅgāsoṇaṃ.

Saṅkhyāparimāṇānaṃ - tikacatukkaṃ.

Sippīnaṃ - veṇarathakāraṃ.

Luddakānaṃ - sākuntika māgavikaṃ.

Appāṇijātīnaṃ - ārasatthi.

Ekajjhāyanabrāhmaṇānaṃ - kaṭhakālāpaṃ iccādi.

vividhaviruddhā (“various and opposite”) means things that are different and opposite in nature. visabhāgā (“dissimilar”) refers to things that are similar yet different. Similar to digu compounds, dvanda compounds representing various/dissimilar parts of the body etc. are treated as singular and neuter in gender.

Examples:

cakkhusotaṃ (eye and ear),
gītavāditaṃ (vocal and instrumental music),
yuganaṅgalaṃ (yoke and plow),
hatthassaṃ (elephant and horse),
asicammaṃ (sword and shield),
ḍaṃsamakasaṃ (gadfly and mosquito),
kokālūkaṃ (owl and wolf).

nāmarūpaṃ (name and form) refers to the inherent nature and form of nouns. Thus the constituents of the compound used refer to different parts of ultimately the same thing.

By saying ādi (etc.) there can be different combinations of genders. For example: bhinnaliṅgānaṃ (constituents with mix of genders), itthipumaṃ (feminine constituents).

The ending vowels of the constituents of the compound can be shortened. Examples:

dāsidāsaṃ (female and male servants)
pattacīvaraṃ (bowl and robe)
gaṅgāsoṇaṃ (Ganges and Sona rivers)

Numbers and measures:

tikacatukkaṃ (three and four)

Craftsmen:

veṇarathakāraṃ (basket-maker and chariot-maker)

Hunters:

sākuntika māgavikaṃ (bird-catcher and deer-hunter)

Inanimate objects:

ārasatthi (spoke and hub)

Brahmins who are together:

kaṭhakālāpaṃ (Kaṭha and Kalāpa)

Etc.

229. Vibhāsā rukkha tiṇa pasu dhana dhañña janapadādīnañca (And optionally for `dvanda` compounds of trees, grasses, animals, wealth, grains, countries and others.)

rukkha (trees)
tiṇa (grass)
pasu (animals)
dhana (wealth)
dhañña (grains)
janapada (countries)

Dvande rukkhādīnaṃ ekattaṃ napuṃsakattañca vā hoti.

Dhavakhadiraṃ, dhavakhadirā, muñjapabbajaṃ, muñjapabbajā, ajeḷakaṃ, ajeḷakā, hiraññasuvaṇṇaṃ, hiraññasuvaṇṇāni, > sāliyavaṃ, sāliyavā.

Kāsikosalaṃ kāsikosalā.

Ādisaddena aññesupi vā. Yathā – niccavirodhīnamaddabbānaṃ - kusalākusalaṃ, kusalākusalāni.

Sakuṇīnaṃ - bakabalākaṃ, bakabalākā.

Byañjanānaṃ - dadhighataṃ, dadhighatāni.

Disānaṃ - pubbāparaṃ, pubbāparā iccādi.

dvanda compounds for trees etc. and similar categories optionally are regarded as singular and neuter gender.

dhavakhadiraṃ, dhavakhadirā (acacia and khadira trees)
muñjapabbajaṃ, muñjapabbajā (muñja and pabbaja grasses)
ajeḷakaṃ, ajeḷakā (goats and sheep)
hiraññasuvaṇṇaṃ, hiraññasuvaṇṇāni (gold and silver)
sāliyavaṃ, sāliyavā (rice and barley)
kāsikosalaṃ, kāsikosalā (Kāsi and Kosala countries)

The term ādi (etc.) indicates this rule applies optionally to other situations as well. For example - for opposite qualities that cannot be mixed:

kusalākusalaṃ or kusalākusalāni (wholesome and unwholesome).

Birds:

bakabalākaṃ or bakabalākā (herons and cranes).

Condiments

dadhighataṃ or dadhighatāni (curd and ghee).

Directions

pubbāparaṃ or pubbāparā (east and west)

Etc.

Abyayībhāvasamāsa (`abyayībhāva` Compound)

230. Adhisaddā smiṃ, tassa lopo. (Ending `adhi` [“over”, “above”] with `smiṃ` inflection is elided)

Adhisaddena tulyādhikaraṇattā itthisaddāpismiṃ. Niccasamāsattā ādhārabhūtāyamitthiyanti padantarena viggaho. Adhi itthiyanti ṭhite –

The prefix adhi has the same inflection form as itthi in smiṃ inflection. Compounds with adhi prefix are treated as feminine gender even if following words are not feminine. Refer to Kaccāyana rule [Adhi itthiyaṁ].

Upasagganipātapubbako abyayībhāvo (avyayībhāva compound begins with `upasagga` [“prefix’] or `nipāta` [“particle”])

Upasaggādipubbako saddo vibhatyatthādīsu samāso hoti, abyayībhāvasañño ca.

‘‘So napuṃsakaliṅgo’’ti abyayībhāvo napuṃsakaliṅgo, yadādinā ekavacano ca.

‘‘Saro rasso napuṃsake’’ti rasso.

A compound that begins with a prefix or similar element and expresses the meaning of a case ending or similar is called an avyayībhāva compound.

“As per Kaccāyana rule [So napuṃsakaliṅgo], an avyayībhāva compound is in the neuter gender, and treated as singular.

As per Kaccāyana rule [Saro rasso napuṃsake] the final vowel is shortened.

Aññasmā lopo ca.

Anakārantā abyayībhāvā parā sabbā vibhattī lujjare. Adhitthi, vibhattīnamattho ādhārādi.

Idhādhisaddo ādhārevattate, adhitthiiccetaṃ padaṃ itthiya miccetamatthaṃ vadati.

Samīpaṃ nagarassa upanagaraṃ. ‘‘Aṃvibhattīnamakārantabyayībhāvā’’ti vibhattīnaṃ kvaci aṃ.

Kvacīti kiṃ. Upanagare.

Abhāvo makkhikānaṃ nimmakkhikaṃ rasso. Anupubbo therānaṃ anutheraṃ, anatikkamma sattiṃ yathāsatti.

Ye ye buḍḍhā yathābuḍḍhaṃ, vicchāyaṃ.

Yattako paricchedo jīvassa yāvajīvaṃ, avadhāraṇe.

Ā pabbatā khettaṃ āpabbataṃ khettaṃ, mariyādāyaṃ, vajjamānā sīmā mariyādā, pabbataṃ vinātyattho.

Ā jalantā sītaṃ ājalantaṃ sītaṃ, abhividhimhi, gayhamānā sīmā abhividhi, jalantena sahetyattho.

Āsaddayoge ‘‘dhātunāmā’’dinā apādānavidhāneneva vākyampi siddhaṃ. Tathāññatra.

Here’s the translation of the Pali grammatical rule into English:

“And there is elision from another.”

All case endings following an indeclinable compound (abyayībhāva) not ending in -a are elided. For example, “adhitthi” (over a woman). The meaning of the case endings is locative, etc.

Here, the word “adhi” is used in the locative sense. The word “adhitthi” expresses the meaning “over a woman.”

“Upanagaram” means “near the city.” Sometimes the ending -aṃ is used for case endings after indeclinable compounds not ending in -a.

Why “sometimes”? Because we also have forms like “upanagare” (in the suburb).

“Nimmakkhikaṃ” (free from flies) is shortened. “Anutheraṃ” means “after the elders,” “yathāsatti” means “according to ability.”

“Yathābuḍḍhaṃ” means “according to seniority,” used in a distributive sense.

“Yāvajīvaṃ” means “as long as life lasts,” used in a limiting sense.

“Āpabbataṃ khettaṃ” means “the field up to the mountain,” used to indicate a boundary. The boundary being referred to is excluded, meaning “the field without the mountain.”

“Ājalantaṃ sītaṃ” means “cold up to burning,” used in an inclusive sense. The boundary being referred to is included, meaning “cold including burning.”

In compounds with “ā-”, the sentence can also be formed using the ablative case as per the rule “dhātunāmā” etc. The same applies elsewhere.

‘‘Uttamo vīro pavīro’’ iccādo pana pubbapadatthappadhānattābhāvābyayībhāvābhāvo kammadhārayoeva. Evaṃ visiṭṭho dhammo abhidhammo. Kucchitaṃ annaṃ kadannaṃ. Etttha ‘‘kada kussā’’ti sare kussa kadādeso.

Appakaṃ lavaṇaṃ kālavaṇaṃ, ettha ‘‘kāppatthesu cā’’ti kussa kā, bahuvacanenāññatrāpi kvaci. Kucchito puriso kāpuriso, kupuriso vā, evamasurādi.

Pubbaparūbhayamaññapadattha - ppadhānābyayībhāva samāso;

Kammadhārayaka tappurisā dve, dvendo ca bahubbīhi ca ñeyyā.

Here’s a translation of the Pali grammatical rule into English:

In compounds like “uttamo vīro pavīro” (the best hero, the great hero), where the meaning of the first word is not predominant, it is not an avyayībhāva compound but a kammadhāraya compound. Similarly, “visiṭṭho dhammo abhidhammo” (excellent doctrine, higher doctrine) and “kucchitaṃ annaṃ kadannaṃ” (bad food) are kammadhāraya compounds. Here, when a vowel follows, “ku” is replaced by “kad” according to the rule “kada kussā”.

“Appakaṃ lavaṇaṃ kālavaṇaṃ” (a little salt, black salt): here, “ku” is replaced by “kā” according to the rule “kāppatthesu ca”, and this replacement sometimes occurs in other cases as well. “Kucchito puriso kāpuriso” or “kupuriso” (a bad man), and similarly with words beginning with “asura” etc.

The avyayībhāva compound has its meaning primarily in the first word, the last word, both, or another word;

The kammadhāraya and tatpuruṣa are two types, and the dvandva and bahuvrīhi should also be known.