1. Sandhikappa (Sandhi Chapter)

Source

U Nandisena, Kaccāyanabyākaraṇaṃ, an English translation of the Kaccāyana grammar with its vutti and examples, based on the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana text. First published in Myanmar in 2005; first electronic version published by the Instituto de Estudios Buddhistas Hispano (IEBH) in 2017 under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 licence reproduced below. Both editions contain the first seven chapters, suttas 1 to 623; the eighth chapter, the Uṇādikappa, is issued by IEBH as a separate file and is not here.

This page is one chapter of U Nandisena’s translation, reproduced as printed. The front matter and the contents are on the main page.

Paṭhamo kaṇḍo (First Section) (1–11)

1. 1. Attho akkharasaññāto.

Sabbavacanānam attho akkhareh’ eva saññāyate. Akkharavipattiyaṃ hi atthassa dunnayatā hoti, tasmā akkharakosallaṃ bahūpakāraṃ Suttantesu.

The meaning of all words is only known by letters. For failure with letters leads to the wrong meaning. Therefore, skillfulness with letters is very useful in the Discourses.

2. 2. Akkharā p’ ādayo ekacattālīsaṃ (1,2).

Te ca kho akkharā api akāradayo ekacattālīsaṃ Suttantesu sopakārā.

Taṃ yathā? a ā i ī u ū e o; ka kha ga gha ṅa; ca cha ja jha ña; ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa; ta tha da dha na; pa pha ba bha ma; ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ. Iti akkharā nāma.

Tena kvattho? Attho akkharasaññāto¹.

And these letters which are forty one beginning with ‘a’ are very useful in the Discourses.

Which are these? a ā i ī u ū e o; ka kha ga gha ṅa; ca cha ja jha ña; ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa; ta tha da dha na; pa pha ba bha ma; ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ. These are called ‘letters’(akkharā).

What is the benefit of that (calling them ‘letters’)? It is beneficial in suttas such as ‘Attho akkharasaññāto’ (§1). [I.e., we know that akkhara in that sutta means the fourty-one letters.]

3. 3. Tatth’ odantā sarā aṭṭha (3).

Tattha akkharesu akārādīsu odantā aṭṭha akkharā sarā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā? a ā i ī u ū e o. Iti sarā nāma.

Tena kvattho? Sarā sare lopaṃ².

Among those letters, the eight letters beginning with ‘a’ and ending with ‘o’ are called ‘vowels’.

Which are these? a ā i ī u ū e o. These are called ‘vowels’ (sarā).

What is the benefit of that (calling them ‘vowels’)? It is beneficial in suttas such as ‘Sarā sare lopaṃ’ (§12).

4. 4. Lahumattā tayo rassā (4).

Tattha aṭṭhasu saresu lahumattā tayo sarā rassā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā? a i u. Iti rassā nāma.

Tena kvattho? Rassaṃ³.

Among the eight vowels, the three light-measured are called ‘short’.

Which are these? a i u. These are called ‘short’ (rassā).

What is the benefit of that (calling them ‘short’)? It is beneficial in suttas such as ‘Rassaṃ’ (§26).

5. 5. Aññe dīghā (5).

Tattha aṭṭhasu saresu rassehi aññe pañca sarā dīghā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā? ā ī ū e o. Iti dīghā nāma.

Tena kvattho? Dīghaṃ⁴.

Among the eight vowels, the five other vowels apart from the shorts (vowels) are called ‘long’.

Which are these? ā ī ū e o. These are called ‘long’ (dīghā).

What is the benefit of that (calling them ‘long’)? It is beneficial in suttas such as ‘Dīghaṃ’ (§25).

6. 8. Sesā byañjanā (6).

Ṭhapetvā aṭṭha sare sesā akkharā kakārādayo niggahitantā byañjanā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā? ka kha ga gha ṅa; ca cha ja jha ña; ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa; ta tha da dha na; pa pha ba bha ma; ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ. Iti byañjanā nāma.

Tena kvattho? Sarā pakati byañjane⁵.

Apart from the eight vowels, the remaining letters beginning with ‘k’ and ending with the niggahita (‘ṃ’) are called ‘consonants’.

Which are these? ka kha ga gha ṅa; ca cha ja jha ña; ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa; ta tha da dha na; pa pha ba bha ma; ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ. These are called ‘consonants’ (byañjanā).

What is the benefit of that (calling them ‘consonants’)? It is beneficial in suttas such as ‘Sarā pakati byañjane’ (§23).

7. 9. Vaggā pañcapañcaso mantā (7).

Tesaṃ kho byañjanānaṃ kakārādayo makārantā pañcapañcaso akkharavanto⁶ vaggā nāma honti.

Taṃ yathā? ka kha ga gha ṅa; ca cha ja jha ña; ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa; ta tha da dha na; pa pha ba bha ma. Iti vaggā nāma.

Tena kvattho? Vaggantaṃ vā vagge⁷.

Of those consonants, the letters beginning with ‘k’ and ending with ‘m’ that are divided into five groups of five letters are called ‘grouped’.

Which are these? ka kha ga gha ṅa; ca cha ja jha ña; ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa; ta tha da dha na; pa pha ba bha ma. These are called ‘grouped’ (vaggā).

What is the benefit of that (calling them ‘grouped’)? It is beneficial in suttas such as ‘Vaggantaṃ vā vagge’ (§31).

8. 10. Aṃ iti niggahitaṃ (8).

Aṃ iti niggahitaṃ nāma hoti.

Tena kvattho? Aṃ byañjane niggahitaṃ⁸.

‘Ṃ’ is called niggahita.

What is the benefit of that (calling it ‘niggahita’)? It is beneficial in suttas such as ‘Aṃ byañjane niggahitaṃ’ (§30).

9. 11. Parasamaññā payoge.

Yā ca pana paresu sakkataganthesu samaññā ghosā ti vā aghosā ti vā, tā payoge sati etth’ āpi yujjante.

Tattha ghosā nāma: ga gha ṅa; ja jha ña; ḍa ḍha ṇa; da dha na; ba bha ma; ya ra la va ha ḷa. Iti ghosā nāma. Aghosā nāma: ka kha; ca cha; ṭa ṭha; ta tha; pa pha; sa. Iti aghosā nāma.

Tena kvattho? Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiya-paṭhamā⁹.

Those terms (found) in the Sanskrit books such as ‘voiced’ or ‘voiceless’, when there is need, they are also used.

Among them, the voiced are: ga gha ṅ; ja jha ña; ḍa ḍha ṇa; da dha na; ba bha ma; ya ra la va ha ḷa. These are called ‘voiced’ (ghosā). The voiceless are: ka kha; ca cha; ṭa ṭha; ta tha; pa pha; sa. These are called ‘voiceless’ (aghosā).

What is the benefit of that (calling them ‘voiced’ and ‘voiceless’)? It is beneficial in suttas such as ‘Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiya-paṭhamā’ (§30).

10. 12. Pubbam adhoṭhitam assaraṃ sarena viyojaye (28).

Tattha sandhiṃ kattukāmo pubbabyañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ katvā sarañ ca upari katvā sarena viyojaye.

Tatr āyam ādi (Khu. i, 67).

Herein, the student who wants to do joining of words should, after making the previous consonant that lies (lit. sits) below¹, free from the vowel and putting the vowel above¹, separate the consonant from the vowel. Example: Tatrāyamādi. should separate the consonant making the previous consonant lie below¹, and devoid of a vowel, and placing the vowel (that is devoid of consonant) above¹.

‘Below’ means on the left, and ‘above’ means on the right. What has been read was called in ancient times “below’, and what has not been read but about to be read is called ‘above’. See §13 for formal formation of the word.

Dutiyo kaṇḍo (Second Section) (11–22)

11. 14. Naye paraṃ yutte (29).

Assaraṃ kho byañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ parakkharaṃ naye yutte.

Tatrābhirati-m-iccheyya (Khu. i, 29).

Yutte ti kasmā? Akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ ahāsi me (Khu. i, 26). Ettha pana yuttaṃ na hoti.

When appropriate, the student should carry the consonant which is without a vowel and which lies below, to the following letter. Example: Tatarābhiratimiccheyya.

Why say ‘yutte’? To show that in this example, ‘Akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ ahāsi me’, there is no carrying of consonant to the vowel. See §13 for formal formation of the word.

* When there is reason for joining the words together, the student should combine the consonat which is without a vowel and which lies on the left, with the the vowel which follows. In the example “Akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ ahāsi me’ the niggahīta (ṃ) which is a consonant should not be combined with the following vowel ‘a’ , because it is not an appropriate place to combine. To show this, the word ‘yutte’ is mentioned in the Sutta.

Iti sandhi-kappe paṭhamo kaṇḍo

Thus ends the first section of the chapter on sandhi

DUTIYA-KAṆḌA Second Section

12. 13. Sarā sare lopaṃ (30).

Sarā kho sare pare lopaṃ papponti.

Yass’ indriyāni samathaṅ gatāni (Khu. i, 27, 358), no h’ etaṃ bhante (Vin. iii, 19), samet’ āyasmā saṃghena (Vin. i, 265).

Vowels come to elision because of a vowel. * There is elision of vowels when they are followed by vowels.

Formation of words in combinations (sandhi) previous suttas:

1. Tatrāyamādi: In order to form this word (actually a combination of two words), first the word must be separated as ‘tatra ayamādi’. Then by §10 the consonant (here conjunct consonant) ‘tr’ is seperated from the vowel ‘a’, and put on the left (tatr a ayamādi); by §12 the ‘a’ is elided because of the following vowel ‘a’ (tatr ayamādi); by §15 the ‘a’ of ayamādi is made long (tatr āyamādi); now the consonant ‘tr’ is carried to (or combined with) the following ‘ā’ by §11. The word ‘tatrāyamādi’ is finished. * The formation of the word given above is the traditional method of forming words. Students have to follow this procedure when they study Pāḷi grammar and form words. Every example in the book has to be formed formally in this way. In oriental scripts, consonants and vowels are written in such a way that they do not appear seperately as in Roman script. Therefore in order to do something to the consonant and also the vowel, they have to be seperated first and written seperately. Only then can one do whatever is appropriate. But in Roman script there is no need to seperate the consonant from the vowel since they stand seperately and not one on top of the other or the two blended together. The combined words should, however, be separated into two by inserting a space. 2. ‘Tatrābhiratimiccheyya’ should be treated the same way as ‘tatrāyamādi’. Sequence: tatra abhiratimiccheyya; tatr a abhiratimiccheyya (§10); tatr abhiratimiccheyya (§12); tatr ābhiratimiccheyya (§15); tatrābhiratimiccheyya (§11). 3. Yassindriyāni: In order to form this word, first the word must be written down as ‘yassa indriyāni’. Then by §10 the consonant (here conjunct consonant) ‘ss’ is seperated from the vowel ‘a’, and is put on the left (yass a indriyāna); by §12 the ‘a’ is elided because of the following vowel ‘i’ (yass indriyāni); now the consonant ‘ss’ is carried to (combined with) the following ‘i’ by §11. The word ‘yassindriyāni’ is finished. 4. No hetaṃ: Sequence: no hi etaṃ ; no h i etaṃ (10); no h etaṃ (12); nohetaṃ (11). 5. Sametāyasmā: sametu āyasmā; samet u āyasmā (10); samet āyasmā (12); sametāyasmā (11).

13. 15. Vā paro asarūpā (31).

Saramhā asarūpā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā.

Cattāro ’me bhikkhave dhammā (A. i, 311), kinnu ’mā ’va samaṇiyo (Vin. iii, 304).

Vā ti kasmā? Pañc’ indriyāni (Abhi. iii, 1), tay’ assu dhammā jahitā bhavanti (Khu. i, 6).

The vowel after a dissimilar vowel comes to elision optionally. * ‘Dissimilar’ means dissimilar in the place of articulation. E. g. ‘a’ and ‘ā’ are said to be ‘similar’ because they are pronounced at ‘kaṇṭha’ the throat; ‘i’ and ‘ī’ are similar being pronounced at the soft palate with the middle of the tongue in proximity with the palate, and so on. But ‘a’ and ‘i’ are said to be dissimilar because they are pronounced at different places of articulation.

Examples: 1. Cattārome: cattāro ime; cattār o ime (10); cattār o me (13); cattārome (11). 2. Kinnumāva: kinnu imāva; kinn u imāva (10); kinn u māva (13); kinnumāva (10).

Why say ‘optionally’? To prevent elision of the following vowel in the following: pañcindriyāni; tayassu dhammā jahitā bhavanti, although they fall in the scope of this Sutta.

Counter examples: 1. Pañcindriyāni: In order to form this word, first the word must be written down as ‘pañca indriyāni’. Then by §10 the consonant (here conjunct consonant) ‘ñc’ is seperated from the vowel ‘a’, and is put on the left (pañc a indriyāni); although ‘i’ could be elided by §13 it is not done here because the Sutta says ‘optionally’; then the ‘a’ is elided by §12 because of the following vowel ‘i’ (pañc indriyāni); now the consonant ‘ñc’ is carried to (combined with) the following ‘i’ by §11. The word ‘pañcindriyāni’ is finished. 2. Tayassu dhammā: Sequence; tayo assu dhammā; tay o assu dhammā (10); although ‘a’ could be elided by §13 it is not done because the Sutta says ‘optionally’; then the ‘o’ should be elided by §12 (tay assu dhammā); tayassu dhammā (11).

14. 16. Kvac’ āsavaṇṇaṃ lutte (34).

Saro kho paro pubbasare lutte kvaci asavaṇṇaṃ pappoti.

Saṅkyaṃ n’ opeti vedagū (S. 408), bandhuss’ eva samāgamo.

Kvacī ti kasmā? Yass’ indriyāni (Khu. i, 27, 358), tathūpamaṃ dhammavaraṃ adesayi (Khu. i, 7, 314).

When the previous vowel has been elided, the following vowel sometimes becomes dissimilar.

Examples: nopeti: na upeti; n a upeti (10); n upeti (12); n opeti (14); nopeti (11). bandhusseva: bandhussa iva; bandhuss a iva (10); bandhuss iva (12); bandhuss eva (14); bandusseva (11).

Why say ‘sometimes? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Yass’ indriyāni, tathūpamaṃ dhammavaraṃ adesayi.

Counter examples: yassindriyāni: yassa indriyāni; yass a indriyāni (10); yass indriyāni (12); yassindriyāni (11). tathūpamaṃ: tathā upamaṃ; tath ā upamaṃ (10); tath upamaṃ (12); tath ūpamaṃ (15); tathūpamaṃ (11).

15. 17. Dīghaṃ (36).

Saro kho paro pubbasare lutte kvaci dīghaṃ pappoti.

Saddh’ īdha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ (Khu. i, 306), anāgārehi c’ ūbhayaṃ (Khu. i, 71, 376).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Pañcah’ Upāli aṅgehi samannāgato (Vin. v, 342), natth’ aññaṃ kiñci.

When the previous vowel has been elided, the following vowel sometimes becomes long.

Examples. 1. saddhīdha: saddhā idha; saddh ā idha (10); saddh idha (12); saddh īdha (15); saddhīdha (11). 2. cūbhayaṃ: ca ubhayaṃ; c a ubhayaṃ (10); c ubhayaṃ (12); c ūbhayaṃ (15); cūbhayaṃ (11).

Why say ‘sometimes? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Pañcah’ Upāli aṅgehi samannāgato, natth’ aññaṃ kiñci.

Counter examples.

1. pañcahupāli: pañcahi upāli; pañcah i upāli (10); pañcah upāli (12); pañcahupāli (11). 2. natthaññaṃ: natthi aññaṃ; natth i aññaṃ (10); natth aññaṃ (12); natthaññaṃ (11).

16. 18. Pubbo ca (35).

Pubbo ca saro parasaralope kate kvaci dīghaṃ pappoti.

Kiṃ sū ’dha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ (Khu. i, 306), sādhū ti paṭissuṇitvā (DhA. i, 30).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Iti ’ssa muhuttam pi (Vin. ii, 196).

When the following vowel has been elided, the previous vowel sometimes becomes long.

Examples. 1. kiṃsūdha: kiṃsu idha; kiṃs u idha (10); kiṃs u dha (13); kiṃs ū dha (16); kiṃsūdha (11). 2. sādhūti: sādhu iti; sādh u iti (10); sādh u ti (13); sādh ū ti (16); sādhūti (11).

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following:

Iti ’ssa muhuttam pi.

Counter examples. Itissa: iti assa; it i assa (10); it i ssa (13); itissa (11).

17. 19. Yam edantass’ ādeso (43).

Ekārassa antabhūtassa sare pare kvaci yakārādeso hoti.

Adhigato kho my āyaṃ dhammo (Vin. iii, 5), ty āhaṃ evaṃ vadeyyaṃ (M. i, 16), ty āssa (A. i, 153) pahīnā honti.

Kvacī ti kasmā? ne ‘nāgatā, iti n’ ettha.

When a vowel follows, the letter ‘e’ which stands at the end sometimes is substituted for ‘y’.

Examples. 1. myāyaṃ: me ayaṃ; m e ayaṃ (10); m y ayaṃ (17); m y āyaṃ (25); myāyaṃ (11).

2. tyāhaṃ: te ahaṃ; t e ahaṃ (10); t y ahaṃ (17); t y āhaṃ (25); tyāhaṃ (11).

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: ne ‘nāgatā, iti n’ ettha.

Counter examples. 1. nenāgatā: ne anāgatā; n e anāgatā (10); n e nāgatā (13); nenāgatā (11). 2. nettha: ne ettha; n e ettha (10); n ettha (12); nettha (11).

18. 20. Vam od-udantānaṃ (44).

Okār’-ukārānaṃ antabhūtānaṃ sare pare kvaci vakārādeso hoti.

Attha kv assa (M. i, 243), sv assa hoti, bahv ābādho (S. i, 94), vatthv ettha vihitaṃ niccaṃ, cakkhv āpātham āgacchati.

Kvacī ti kasmā? Cattāro ’me bhikkhave dhammā (A. i, 311), kinnu ’mā ’va samaṇiyo (Vin. ii, 304).

When a vowel follows, the letters ‘o’ and ‘u’ which stand at the end sometimes are substituted for ‘v’.

Examples. 1. attha kvassa: attha ko assa; atth k o assa (10); attha k v assa (18); attha kvassa (11). 2. svassa: so assa; s o assa (10); s v assa (18); svassa (11). 3. bahvābādho: bahu ābādho; bah o ābādho (10); bah v ābādho (18); bahvābādho (11). 4. vatthvettha: vatthu ettha; vatth o ettha (10); vatth v ettha (18); vatthvettha (11). 5. cakkhvāpātham: cakkhu āpātham; cakkh u āpātham (10); cakkh v āpātham (18); cakkhvāpātham (11).

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Cattāro ’me bhikkhave dhammā, kinnu ’mā ’va samaṇiyo.

Counter examples. 1. cattārome: cattāro ime; cattār o ime (10); cattār o me (13); cattārome (11). 2. kinnumāva: kinnu imāva; kinn u imāva (10); kinn u māva (13); kinnumāva (11).

19. 22. Sabbo caṃ ti (46, 47).

Sabbo icc’ eso tisaddo byañjano sare pare kvaci cakāraṃ pappoti.

Icc’ etaṃ kusalaṃ (Vin. i, 265), icc’ assa vacanīyaṃ (D. ii, 47), paccuttaritvā (JA. vi, 94), paccāharati (Vin. i, 204).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Iti ’ssa muhuttam pi (Vin. ii, 196).

When a vowel follows, the syllable ‘ti’ sometimes becomes ‘c’.

Examples. 1. iccetaṃ: iti etaṃ; i ti etaṃ (10); i c etaṃ (19); i cc etaṃ (28); iccetaṃ (11). 2. iccassa: iti assa; i ti assa (10); i c assa (19); i cc assa (28); iccassa (11). 3. paccuttaritvā: pati uttaritvā; pa ti uttaritvā (10); pa c uttaritvā (19); pa cc uttaritvā (28); paccuttaritvā (11). 4. paccāharati: pati āharati; pa ti āharati (10); pa c āharati (19); pa cc āharati (28); paccāharati (11).

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following:

Iti ’ssa muhuttam pi.

Counter example. 1. itissa: iti assa: it i assa (10); it i ssa (13); itissa (11).

20. 27. Do dhassa ca (50).

Dha icc’ etassa sare pare kvaci dakārādeso hoti.

Ekam idāhaṃ bhikkhave samayaṃ (M. i, 401).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Idh’ eva maraṇaṃ bhavissati (Vin. i, 15).

When a vowel follows, ‘dha’ also (for ‘ca’ in the Sutta) is sometimes substituted by ‘da’ also (for ‘ca’ in the Sutta).

Examples. 1. idāhaṃ: idha ahaṃ; i dha ahaṃ (10); i da ahaṃ (20); i d ahaṃ (12); i d āhaṃ (15); idāhaṃ (11).

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Idh’ eva maraṇaṃ bhavissati.

Counter examples. 1. idheva: idha eva; idh a eva (10); idh eva (12); idheva (11).

Caggahaṇena dhakārassa hakārādeso hoti. Sāhu dassanam ariyānaṃ (Khu. i, 34).

By taking ‘ca’ (or by the power of ‘ca’) there is substitution of ‘dha’ by ‘ha’. * ‘Ca’ in this sutta means that this rule has further applications such as the¹⁰ substitution of ‘dha’ for ‘ha’. Example: sāhu: sādhu; sā dhu (10); sāhu (20).

Suttavibhāgena bahudhā siyā:

To dassa, yathā? Sugato (Vin. i, 1).

Ṭo tassa, yathā? Dukkaṭaṃ (Vin. v, 262).

Dho tassa, yathā? Gandhabbo (M. i, 332).

Tro ttassa, yathā? Atrajo (Vin. iii, 428).

Ko gassa, yathā? Kulūpako (Vin. i, 192).

Lo rassa, yathā? Mahāsālo (D. ii, 121).

Jo yassa, yathā? Gavajo (Khu. v, 283).

Bbo vvassa, yathā? Kubbato (Khu. v, 95).

Ko yassa, yathā? Sake (Khu. vi, 325).

Yo jassa, yathā? Niyaṃ puttaṃ (Khu. i, 11,301).

Ko tassa, yathā? Niyako.

Cco ttassa, yathā? Bhacco.

Pho passa, yathā? Nipphatti.

Kho kassa, yathā? Nikkhamati. Icc’ evamādī yojetabbā.

By breaking the Sutta (here, making similar suttas) there are many applications: ‘d’ is changed to ‘t’ as in Sugato (Sugado → Sugato); ‘t’ to ‘ṭ’ as in dukkaṭaṃ (dukkataṃ→ dukkaṭaṃ); ‘t’ to ‘dh’ as in gandhabbo (gantabbo gandhabbo); ‘tt’ to ‘tr’ as in atrajo (attajo → atrajo); ‘g’ to ‘k’ as in kulūpako (kulūpago → kulūpako); ‘r’ to ‘l’ as in mahāsālo (mahāsāro mahāsālo);

‘y’ to ‘j’ as in gavajo (gavayo → gavajo); ‘vv’ to ‘bb’ as in kubbato (kuvvato → kubbato); ‘y’ to ‘k’ as in sake (saye sake); ‘j’ to ‘y’ as niyaṃ (nijaṃ niyaṃ); ‘t’ to ‘k’ as in niyako (niyato → niyako); ‘tt’ to ‘cc’ as in bhacco (bhatto → bhacco); ‘p’ to ‘ph’ as in nipphatti (nippatti nipphatti); ‘k’ to ‘kh’ as in nikkhamati (nikkamati → nikkhamati). Other examples beginning with these should be formed.

21. 21. Ivaṇṇo yaṃ navā (51).

Pubbo ivaṇṇo sare pare yakāraṃ pappoti navā.

Paṭisanthāravuty assa (Khu. i, 67), sabbā vity ānubhūyate.

Navā ti kasmā? Pañcah’ aṅgehi samannāgato (Vin. v, 343), muttacāgī anuddhato.

When a vowel follows, the previous letter ‘i’ (or ‘ī’) occasionally becomes¹¹ ‘y’.

Examples. 1. paṭisanthāravutyassa: paṭisanthāravutti assa; paṭisanthāravutt i assa (10); paṭisanthāravutt y assa (21); paṭisanthāravut y assa (?); paṭisanthāravutyassa (11). 2. vityānubhūyate: vitti anubhūyate; vitt i anubhūyate (10); vitt y anubhūyate (21); vit y anubhūyate (?); vit y ānubhūyate (25); vityānubhūyate (11).

Why say ‘occassionally’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Pañcah’ aṅgehi samannāgato, muttacāgī anuddhato.

Counter examples. 1. pañcahaṅgehi: pañcahi aṅgehi; pañcah i aṅgehi (10); pañcah aṅgehi (12); pañcahaṅgehi (11). 2. muttacāgī anuddhato. Here there is the possibility of ‘ī’ becoming ‘y’ but the word ‘navā’ (occasionally) in the sutta here prevents the operation of this rule.

22. 28. Evādissa ri pubbo ca rasso (52).

Saramhā parassa evassa ekārassa ādissa rikāro hoti, pubbo ca saro rasso hoti navā.

Yatha-r-iva (D. i, 85) vasudhātalañ ca sabbaṃ, tatha-r-iva guṇavā supūjaniyo.

Navā ti kasmā? Yathā eva, tathā eva.

After a vowel, there is substitution of the letter ‘e’ which is the beginning of ‘eva’ for the syllable ‘ri’, and the previous vowel occasionally becomes short.

Examples. 1. yathariva: yathā eva; yath ā eva (10); yath ā riva (22); yath a riva (22); yathariva (11). 2. tathariva: tathā eva; tath ā eva (10); tath ā riva (22); tath a riva (22); tathariva (11).

Why say ‘occasionally’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Yathā eva, tathā eva.

Iti sandhi-kappe dutiyo kaṇḍo

Thus ends the second section of the chapter on sandhi

TATIYA-KAṆḌA Third Section

Tatiyo kaṇḍo (Third Section) (23–29)

23. 36. Sarā pakati byañjane (62).

Sarā kho byañjane pare pakatirūpāni honti.

Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā (Khu. i, 13), pamādo maccuno padaṃ (Khu. i, 16), tiṇṇo pāraṅgato ahu (Khu. i, 72).

When a consonant follows, vowels retain their original form.

Examples.

1. manopubbaṅgamā dhammā. Here the ‘ā’ remains unchanged because it is followed by a consonant. 2. pamādo maccuno padaṃ. The ‘o’ of pamādo and the ‘o’ of maccuno remain unchanged because they are followed by consonants. 3. tiṇṇo pāraṅgato ahu. The ‘o’ of tiṇṇo remains unchanged because it is followed by a consonant. The ‘o’ of pāraṅgato remains unchanged before the vowel ‘a’ of ahu according to next sutta.

24. 35. Sare kvaci (63).

Sarā kho sare pare kvaci pakatirūpāni honti.

Ko imaṃ pathaviṃ vicessati (Khu. i, 19).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Appassut’ āyaṃ puriso (khu. i, 36).

When a vowel follows, vowels sometimes retain their original forms.

Examples. 1. kho imaṃ. Here the ‘o’ of kho remains unchanged when followed by a vowel.

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Appassut’ āyaṃ puriso.

Counter examples. 1. appassutāyaṃ: appassuto ayaṃ; appassut o ayaṃ (10); appassut ayaṃ (12); appassut āyaṃ (15); appassutāyaṃ (11).

25. 37. Dīghaṃ (64, 71, 165).

Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci dīghaṃ papponti.

Sammā dhammaṃ vipassato (Khu. i, 67), evaṃ gāme munī care (Khu. i, 20), khantī paramaṃ tapo titikkhā (D. ii, 42).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Idha modati pecca modati (Khu. i, 15), patilīyati (A. ii, 434), paṭihaññati (Vi. iv, 292).

When a consonant follows, vowels sometimes become long.

Examples. 1. sammā dhammaṃ: samma dhammaṃ; sammā dhammaṃ (25). 2. munī care: muni care; munī care (25). 3. khantī paramaṃ: khanti paramaṃ; khantī paramaṃ (25).

Whey say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Idha modati pecca modati, patilīyati, paṭihaññati.

Counter examples.

1. idha modati pecca modati. Here the vowels ‘a’ of idha and pecca remain unchanged before the consonants. 2. patilīyati: pati + lī + ya + ti. 3. paṭihaññati: paṭi + hana + ya + ti.

26. 38. Rassaṃ (65, 179).

Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci rassaṃ papponti.

Bhovādi nāma so hoti (Khu. i, 71), yathā bhāvi guṇena so.

Kvacī ti kasmā? Sammā samādhi (Vin. iii, 14), sāvittī chandaso mukhaṃ, upanīyati jīvitam appam āyu (S. i, 2).

When a consonant follows, vowels sometimes become short.

Examples. 1. bhovādi nāma: bhovādī nāma; bhovādi nāma (26). 2. bhāvi guṇena: bhāvī guṇena; bhāvi guṇena (26).

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Sammā samādhi, sāvittī chandaso mukhaṃ, upanīyati jīvitam appam āyu.

Counter examples. 1. sammā samādhi. Here and in the following counter example the final vowels do not become short. 2. sāvittī chandaso. 3. upanīyati. Here the ‘ī’ of upanīyati does not become short. (This is not a satisfactory example.)

27. 39. Lopañ ca tatrākāro (66, 163-4).

Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci lopaṃ papponti, tatra ca lope kate akārāgamo hoti.

Sa sīlavā (Khu. i, 25), sa paññavā ((Khu. i, 25), esa dhammo sanantano (Khu. i, 14), sa ve kasāvam arahati (Khu. i, 14), sa mānakāmo pi bhaveyya, sa ve muni jātibhayaṃ adassi.

Kvacī ti kasmā? So muni (Khu. i, 52), eso dhammo padissati, na so kāsāvam arahati (Khu. i, 14).

When a consonant follows, vowels sometimes are elided, and there, at the place of the elision, the letter ‘a’ is inserted.

Examples. 1. sa sīlavā: so sīlavā; s o sīlavā (10); s sīlavā (27); s a sīlavā (27); sa sīlavā (11). 2. sa paññavā: so paññavā; s o paññavā (10); s paññavā (27); s a paññavā (27); sa paññavā (11). 3. esa dhammo: eso dhammo; es o dhammo (10); es dhammo (27); es a dhammo (27); esa dhammo (11). 4. sa ve: so ve: s o ve (10); s ve (27); s a ve (27); sa ve (11). 5. sa mānakāmo: so mānakāmo; s o mānakāmo (10); s mānakāmo (27); s a mānakāmo (27); sa mānakāmo (11). 6. sa ve. Same as 4.

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: So muni, eso dhammo padissati, na so kāsāvam arahati.

Counter examples. 1. so muni. Here and in the other counter examples there is no change. 2. eso dhammo. 3. so kāsāvam.

28. 40. Paradvebhāvo ṭhāne (67).

Saramhā parassa byañjanassa dvebhāvo hoti ṭhāne.

Idha ppamādo, purisassa jantuno, pabbajjaṃ kittayissāmi (Khu. i, 340), cātuddasiṃ (A. i, 142), pañcaddasiṃ (A. i, 142), abhikkantataro cando.

Ṭhāne ti kasmā? Idha modati pecca modati (Khu. i, 15).

In some places, after a vowel, there is doubling of the following consonant.

Examples. 1. idhappamādo: idha pamādo; idha ppamādo (28); idhappamādo (11). 2. purisassa. Here there is the insertion of ‘s’ after the stem ‘purisa’ before the inflection ‘sa’ (fourth and sixth inflection masculine singular). See §61. 3. pabbajjaṃ: pa bajjaṃ; pa bbajjaṃ (28); pabbajjaṃ (11). 4. cātuddasiṃ: cātu dasiṃ; cātu ddasiṃ (28); cātuddasiṃ (11). 5. pañcaddasiṃ: pañca dasiṃ; pañca ddasiṃ (28); pañcaddasiṃ (11). 6. abhikkantataro: abhi kantataro; abhi kkantataro (28); abhikkantataro (11).

Why say ‘in some places’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Idha modati pecca modati.

Counter examples. 1. idha modati pecca modati. Here there is no doubling of ‘m’ after ‘a’ of idha and pecca.

29. 42. Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiya-paṭhamā (68).

Vagge kho pubbesaṃ byañjanānaṃ ghosāghosabhūtānaṃ saramhā yathāsaṅkhyaṃ tatiya-paṭhamakkharā dvebhāvaṃ gacchanti ṭhāne.

Es’ eva ca jjhānapphalo, yatra ṭṭhitaṃ na ppasaheyya maccu (Khu. i, 32), sele yathā pabbatamuddhani ṭṭhito (Vin. iii, 6), cattāri ṭṭhānāni naro pamatto (Khu. i, 57).

Ṭhāne āne ti kasmā? Idha cetaso daḷhaṃ gaṇhāti thāmasā.

In appropriate places, the first and third letters become the double of the second and fourth letters (voiceless and voiced) respectively of that group when they are preceded by a vowel. (I.e., the second letter is doubled as first-second, and the fourth is doubled as third-fourth.)

Examples. 1. cajjhānapphalo: ca jhānapphalo; ca jjhānapphalo (29); cajjhānapphalo. (Jhānapphalo can also be an example: jhānapphalo; jhāna phalo; jhānapphalo (29); jhānapphalo.) 2. yatraṭṭhitaṃ: yatra ṭhitaṃ; yatra ṭṭhitaṃ (29); yatraṭṭhitaṃ. 3. nappasaheyya: na pasaheyya; na ppasaheyya (28); nappasaheyya. 4. pabbatamuddhaniṭṭhito: pabbatamuddhani ṭhito; pabbatamuddhani ṭṭhito (29); pabbatamuddhaniṭṭhito. 5. cattāriṭṭhānāni: cattāri ṭhānāni; cattāri ṭṭhānāni (29); cattāriṭṭhānāni.

Why say ‘in some places’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Idha cetaso daḷhaṃ gaṇhāti thāmasā.

Counter examples. 1. idha cetaso. Here there is no doubling of the ‘c’ of cetaso after the vowel ‘a’ of idha. 2. cetaso daḷhaṃ. There is no doubling of the ‘d’ of daḷhaṃ after the vowel ‘o’ of cetaso.

Iti sandhi-kappe tatiyo kaṇḍo

Thus ends the third section of the chapter on sandhi

CATUTTHAHA-KAṆḌA

Fourth Section

Catuttho kaṇḍo (Fourth Section) (30–41)

30. 58. Aṃ byañjane niggahitaṃ (153).

Niggahitaṃ kho byañjane pare aṃ iti hoti.

Evaṃ vutte (Vin. i, 7), taṃ sādhū ti paṭissuṇitvā (DhA. i, 30).

When a consonant follows, there is the niggahita ‘ṃ’. According to this sutta the niggahita ‘ṃ’ remain unchanged when followed by a consonant.

Examples. 1. evaṃvutte: evaṃ vutte (30). 2. taṃsādhūti: taṃ sādhū ti (30).

31. 49. Vaggantaṃ vā vagge (138-9).

Vaggabhūte byañjane pare niggahitaṃ kho vaggantaṃ vā pappoti.

Tan niccutaṃ, dhammañ care sucaritaṃ (Khu. i, 39), cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ (Khu. i, 45). Santan tassa manaṃ hoti (Khu. i, 27), taṅ kāruṇikaṃ, evaṅ kho bhikhave sikkhitabbaṃ.

Vāggahaṇena niggahitaṃ kho lakārādeso hoti. Puggalaṃ¹²

Vā ti kasmā? Na taṃ kammaṃ kataṃ sādhu (Khu. i, 23).

When a grouped consonant follows, the (previous) niggahita optionally becomes the last letter of the group.

Examples. 1. tannicuttaṃ: taṃ nicuttaṃ; tan nicuttaṃ (31); tannicuttaṃ. 2. dhammañcare: dhammaṃ care; dhammañ care (31); dhammañcare. 3. cirappavāsiṃ: ciraṃ pavāsiṃ; ciram pavāsiṃ (31); cirap pavāsiṃ (35); cirappavāsiṃ. 4. santantassa: santaṃ tassa; santan tassa (31); santantassa. 5. taṇkāruṇikaṃ: taṃ kāruṇikaṃ; kaṅ kāruṇikaṃ (31); taṇkāruṇikaṃ. 6. evaṅkho: evaṃ kho; evaṅ kho (31); evaṅkho.

By taking ‘optionally’ there is substitution of the niggahita by ‘l’. Example, puggalaṃ: puggaṃ aṃ; puggal aṃ (by ‘vā’ in 31); puggalaṃ (11). (According to Nyāsa. But this is not a satisfactory example. See the footnote to ‘Puggalaṃ’ above.)

Why say ‘optionally’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Na taṃ kammaṃ kataṃ sādhu.

Counter example. 1. taṃ kammaṃ. Here there is no substitution of ‘ṃ’ for ‘ṅ’.

32. 50. E-he ñaṃ (140).

Ekāra-hakāre pare niggahitaṃ kho ñakāraṃ pappoti vā.

Paccattañ ñeva parinibbāyissāmi (M. i, 318), tañ ñev’ ettha paṭipucchissāmi (D. i, 57), evañ hi vo bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ (M. i, 171). Tañ hi tassa musā hoti (Khu. i, 396).

Vā ti kasmā? Evam etaṃ abhiññāya (Khu. i, 447), evaṃ hoti subhāsitaṃ.

When the letters ‘e’ and ‘h’ follow, the niggahita optionally becomes ‘ñ’.

Examples. 1. paccattaññeva: paccattaṃ eva; paccatañ eva (32); paccataññ eva (320); paccattaññeva. 2. taññevettha: taṃ ev’ ettha; tañ ev’ ettha (32); taññ ev’ ettha (32); taññevettha. 3. evañhi: evaṃ hi; evañ hi (32); evañhi. 4. tañhi: taṃ hi; tañ hi (32); tañhi.

Why say ‘optionally’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Evam etaṃ abhiññāya, evaṃ hoti subhāsitaṃ. The particle ‘vā’ in this sutta is used as a fixed alternative (vavatthitavibhāsa). The change of ‘ṃ’ to ‘ñ’ applies only when it is followed by ‘eva’ and ‘hi’.

Counter examples. 1. evam etaṃ: evaṃ etaṃ. Here the ‘ṃ’ of evaṃ is not followed by ‘eva’. 2. evaṃ hoti. Here the ‘ṃ’ is not followed by ‘hi’.

33. 51. Sa ye ca (141).

Niggahitaṃ kho yakāre pare saha yakārena ñakāraṃ pappoti vā.

Saññogo, saññuttaṃ.

Vā ti kasmā? Saṃyogo, saṃyuttaṃ.

When the letter ‘y’ follows, the niggahita together with the letter ‘y’ optionally becomes ‘ñ’.

Examples. 1. saññogo: saṃ yogo; sañ ñogo (33); saññogo. 2. saññuttaṃ: saṃ yuttaṃ; sañ ñuttaṃ (33); saññuttaṃ.

Why say ‘optionally’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Saṃyogo, saṃyuttaṃ.

Counter examples. 1. saṃyogo. (There are two choices, saññogo and saṃyogo: but here the speaker chooses to say ‘saṃyogo’. Therefore ‘ṃ’ together with ‘y’ is not changed to ‘ñ’.) 2. saṃyuttaṃ. (To be understood similarly.)

34. 52. Ma-dā sare (142-5).

Niggahitassa kho sare pare makāra-dakārādesā honti vā.

Tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ (Khu. i, 68), etad avoca satthā (S. i, 222).

Vā ti kasmā? Akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ (Khu. i, 13), ajini maṃ ahāsi me (Khu. i, 13).

When a vowel follows, optionally there is substitution of the niggahita for the letters ‘m’ and ‘d’.

Examples. 1. tamahaṃ: taṃ ahaṃ; tam ahaṃ (34); tamahaṃ. 2. etadavoca: etaṃ avoca; etad avoca (34); etadavoca.

Why say ‘optionally’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ ahāsi me.

Counter examples. 1. maṃ avadhi. 2. maṃ ahāsi.

35. 34. Ya-va-ma-da-na-ta-ra-lā c’ āgamā (56).

Sare pare yakāro vakāro makāro dakāro nakāro takāro rakāro lakāro ime āgamā honti vā.

Na-y-imassa vijjā (Khu. v, 74), yatha-y-idaṃ cittaṃ (A. i, 4). Migī bhantā-v- udikkhati (Khu. vi, 40), sittā te lahu-m-essati (Khu. i, 66), asittā te garu-m-essati. Asso bhadro kasā-m-iva (Khu. i, 34), samma-d-aññā vimuttānaṃ (Khu. i, 21). Manasā-d-aññā vimuttānaṃ, atta-d-attham abhiññāya (Khu. i, 38). Ciraṃ-n-āyati, ito- n-āyati. Yasmā-t-iha bhikkhave, tasmā-t-iha bhikkhave (S. i, 267), ajja-t-agge (D. i, 80) pāṇupetaṃ. Sabbhi-r-eva samāsetha (S. i, 16), āragge-r-iva sāsapo (Khu. i, 71), sāsapo-r-iva āraggā¹³ (Khu. i, 71). Cha-ḷ-abhiññā (Khu. iv, 322), sa-ḷ-āyatanaṃ (Vin. iii, 1).

Vā ti kasmā? Evaṃ mahiddhiyā esā, akkocchi maṃ, avadhi maṃ (Khu. i, 13), ajini maṃ ahāsi me (Khu. i, 13), ajeyyo anugāmiko (Khu. i, 10).

Caggahaṇena idh’ eva makārassa pakāro hoti. Cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ (Khu. i, 45).

Kakārassa ca dakāro hoti. Sadatthapasuto siyā (Khu. i, 38).

Dakārassa ca takāro hoti. Sugato (Vin. i, 1).

When a vowel follows, optionally there are these insertions: ‘y’, ‘v’, ‘m’, ‘d’, ‘n’, ‘t’, ‘r’, and ‘l’.

Examples. 1. na-y-imassa. 2. yatha-y-idaṃ: yathā idaṃ; yathā y idaṃ (35); yatha y idaṃ (26); yathayidaṃ (11). 3. bhantā-v-udikkhati. 4. lahu-m-essati. 5. garum-m-essati. 6. kasā-m-iva. 7. samma-d-aññā: sammā aññā; sammā d aññā (35); samma d aññā (26); sammadaññā (11). 8. manasā-d-aññā. 9. atta-d-attham. 10. ciraṃ-n-āyati. 11. ito-n-āyati. 12. yasmā-t-iha. 13. tasmā-t-iha. 14. ajja-t-agge. 15. sabbhi-r-eva. 16. āragge-r-iva. 17. sāsapo-r-iva.

18. cha-ḷ-abhiññā. 19. sa-ḷ-āyatanaṃ.

Why say ‘optionally’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Evaṃ mahiddhiyā esā, akkocchi maṃ, avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ ahāsi me, ajeyyo anugāmiko.

Counter examples. 1. mahiddhiyā esā. 2. akkocchi maṃ, avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ ahāsi me. (Nothing inserted after ‘ṃ’s.)¹⁴ 3. ajeyyo anugāmiko.

By taking ‘ca’ here there are the following substitutions: ‘m’ for ‘p’, ‘k’ for ‘d’ and ‘d’ for ‘t’. Example. 1. cirappavāsiṃ: ciraṃ pavāsiṃ; ciram pavāsiṃ (31); cirap pavāsiṃ (‘ca’ of 35); cirappavāsiṃ. 2. sadatthapasuto: saka atthapasuto; sak a atthapasuto (10); sak atthapasuto (12); sad atthapasuto (‘ca’ of 35); sadatthapasuto (11). 3. sugato: sugado; sugato (‘ca’ of 35).

36. 47. Kvaci o byañjane (130).

Byañjane pare kvaci okārāgamo hoti.

Atippago (A. iii, 424) kho tāva Sāvatthiyaṃ piṇḍāya carituṃ. Parosahassaṃ (S. i, 194).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Etha passath’ imaṃ lokaṃ (Khu. i, 39), andhībhūto ayaṃ loko (Khu. i, 39).

When a consonant follows, sometimes there is the insertion of the letter ‘o’.

Examples. 1. atippagokho: atippa kho; atippa g kho (by ‘ca’ of sutta 35); atippa go kho (36); atippagokho. 2. parosahassaṃ: para sahassaṃ; par a sahassaṃ (10); par sahassaṃ (12); par o sahassaṃ (36); parosahassaṃ.

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Etha passath’ imaṃ lokaṃ, andhībhūto ayaṃ loko.

Counter examples. 1. etha passath’ (imaṃ lokaṃ).

2. andhībhūto ayaṃ loko. (Here counter example should be ‘andhībhūto ayaṃ’ and not ‘ayaṃ loko’. See Kaccāyana Bhāsāṭīkā.)¹⁵

37. 57. Niggahitañ ca (146).

Niggahitañ c’ āgamo hoti sare vā byañjane vā pare kvaci.

Cakkhuṃ udapādi (Vin. iii, 15), avaṃsiro (Khu. v, 230), yāvañ c’ idha bhikkhave purimaṃ jātiṃ sarāmi, aṇuṃthūlāni sabbaso (Khu. i, 54), manopubbaṅgamā dhammā (Khu. i, 13).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Idh’ eva naṃ pasaṃ santi, pecca sagge pamodati (Khu. vi, 82; Aṅ. i, 311); na hi etehi yānehi, gaccheyya agataṃ disaṃ (Khu. i, 59).

Caggahaṇena visaddassa ca pakāro hoti. Pacesssati, vicessati vā (Khu. i, 19).

When a vowel or a consonant follows, sometimes there is the insertion of the niggahita.

Examples. 1. cakkhuṃ udapādi: cakkhu udapādi; cakkhu ṃ udapādi (37); cakkhuṃ udapādi. 2. avaṃsiro: ava siro; ava ṃ siro (37); avaṃsiro. 3. yāvañcidha: yāva ca idha; yāva c a idha (10); yāva c idha (12); yāva ṃ c idha (37); yāva ñ c idha (31); yāvañcidha (11). 4. purimaṃ jātiṃ: this example is problematic. See Kaccāyana Bhāsāṭīkā. 5. aṇuṃthūlāni: aṇu thūlāni; aṇu ṃ thūlāni (37); aṇuṃthūlāni. 6. manopubbaṅgamā: manopubba gamā; manopubba ṃ gamā (37); manopubba ṅ gamā (31); manopubbaṅgamā.

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Idh’ eva naṃ pasaṃsanti, pecca sagge pamodati; na hi etehi yānehi, gaccheyya agataṃ disaṃ.

Counter examples. Please explain which are the counter examples? 1. idheva: idha eva; no application of this sutta; idh a eva (10); idh eva (12); idheva (11). 2. pecca sagge. 3. hi etehi.

By taking ‘ca’ there is also ‘pa’ of ‘vi’. Pacesssati, vicessati vā. Example: pacessati. Counter example for ‘ca’: vicessati.

38. 53. Kvaci lopaṃ (147).

Niggahitaṃ kho sare pare kvaci lopaṃ pappoti.

Tāsāhaṃ santike (Vin. ii, 303), vidūn aggam iti.

Kvacī ti kasmā? Aham eva nūna bālo etam atthaṃ viditvāna (Vin. iii, 2).

When a vowel follows, sometimes the niggahita comes to elision.

Examples. 1. tāsāhaṃ: tāsaṃ ahaṃ; tāsa ahaṃ (38); tās a ahaṃ (10); tās ahaṃ (12); tās āhaṃ (15); tāsāhaṃ (11). 2. vidūnaggamiti: vidūnaṃ aggaṃ iti; vidūna aggaṃ iti (38); vidūn a aggaṃ iti (10); vidūn aggaṃ iti (12); vidūn aggam iti (34); vidūnaggamiti (11).

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Aham eva nūna bālo etam atthaṃ viditvāna.

Counter examples. 1. aham eva. 2. etam attthaṃ.

39. 54. Byañjane ca (147).

Niggahitaṃ kho byañjane pare kvaci lopaṃ pappoti.

Ariyasaccāna’ dassanaṃ (Khu. i, 4), etaṃ buddhāna’ sāsanaṃ (Khu. i, 41).

Kvacī acī ti kasmā? Etaṃ maṅgalam uttamaṃ (Khu. i, 3), taṃ vo vadāmi bhaddante (Khu. v, 168).

When a consonant follows, sometimes the niggahita comes to elision.

Examples. 1. ariyasaccānadassanaṃ: ariyasaccānaṃ dassanaṃ; ariyasaccāna dassanaṃ (39); ariyasaccānadassanaṃ. 2. buddhānasāsanaṃ: buddhānaṃ sāsanaṃ; buddhāna sāsanaṃ (39); buddhānasāsanaṃ.

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Etaṃ maṅgalam uttamaṃ, taṃ vo vadāmi bhaddante.

Counter examples. 1. etaṃ maṅgalam. 2. taṃ vo.

40. 55. Paro vā saro (148).

Niggahitamhā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā.

Bhāsitaṃ abhinandun ti (D. i, 43); uttattaṃ ’va, yathābījaṃ ’va, yathādhaññaṃ ’va.

Vā ti kasmā? Aham eva nūna bālo, etad ahosi (Vin. i, 13).

The vowel after the niggahita optionally comes to elision.

Examples. 1. abhinandunti: abhinanduṃ iti; abhinanduṃ ti (40); abhinandun ti (31); abhinandunti. 2. uttattaṃva: uttattaṃ iva; uttattaṃ va (40); uttattaṃva. 3. yathābījaṃva: yathābījaṃ iva; yathābījaṃ va (40); yathābījaṃva. 4. yathādhaññaṃva: yathādhaññaṃ iva; yathādhaññaṃ va (40); yathādhaññaṃva.

Why say ‘optionally’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Aham eva nūna bālo, etad ahosi.

Counter examples. 1. ahameva: ahaṃ eva. 2. etadahosi. etaṃ ahosi; etad ahosi.

41. 56. Byañjano ca visaññogo (135-6, 149).

Niggahitamhā parasmiṃ sare lutte yadi byañjano sasaññogo visaññogo hoti.

Evaṃ ’sa te āsavā (M. i, 13), pupphaṃ ’sā uppajji (Vin. i, 21).

Lutte ti kasmā? Evam assa (Vin. i, 265) vidhūn’ aggam iti.

Caggahaṇena tiṇṇaṃ byañjanānam antare ye sarūpā, tesam pi lopo hoti. Agyāgāraṃ (Vin. ii, 145); paṭisanthāravuty assa (Khu. i, 67).

When the vowel that follows the niggahita is elided, if the syllable has a conjunct consonant, it becomes single consonant.

Examples. 1. evaṃsa: evaṃ assa; evaṃ ssa (40); evaṃ sa (41); evaṃsa. 2. pupphaṃsā: pupphaṃ assā; pupphaṃ ssā (40); pupphaṃ sā (41); pupphaṃsā.

Why say ‘elided’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Evam assa vidhūn’ aggam iti.

Counter examples. 1. evamassa: evaṃ assa. Here there is no elision of the vowel that follows the niggahita. 2. vidhūnaggam: vidhūnaṃ aggaṃ. Since there is no elision of the ‘a’ of aggaṃ, the conjunct consonant ‘gg’ does not become single consonant.

By taking ‘ca’, when there are three consonants, there is also elsion of those consonants that are similar.

Examples. 1. agyāgāraṃ: aggi āgāraṃ; aggy āgāraṃ (21); agy āgāraṃ (41); agyāgāraṃ. 2. paṭisanthāravutyassa: paṭisanthāravutti assa; paṭisanthāravutty assa (21); paṭisanthāravuty assa (41); paṭisanthāravutyassa.

Iti sandhi-kappe catuttho kaṇḍo

Thus ends the fourth section of the chapter on sandhi

PAÑCAMA-KAṆḌA Fifth Section

Pañcamo kaṇḍo (Fifth Section) (42–51)

42. 32. Go sare puthass’ āgamo kvaci (53).

Putha icc’ etassa ante sare pare kvaci gakārāgamo hoti.

Puthag eva.

At the end of ‘putha’, when a vowel follows, sometimes there is the insertion of the letter ‘g’.

Examples. 1. puthageva: putha eva; putha g eva (42); puthageva.

43. 33. Pāssa c’ anto rasso (54).

Pā icc’ etassa ante sare pare kvaci gakārāgamo hoti, anto ca saro rasso hoti.

Pag eva (Khu. v, 111) vutyassa.

Kvacī ti kasmā? Pā eva (Vin. iv, 476) vutyassa.

At the end of ‘pā’, when a vowel follows, sometimes there is the insertion of the letter ‘g’, and the end vowel becomes short.

Examples. 1. pageva: pā eva; pā g eva (43); pa g eva (43); pageva.

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Pā eva vutyassa.

44. 24. Abbho abhi (57).

Abhi icc’ etassa sare pare abbhādeso hoti.

Abbhudīritaṃ, abbhuggacchati (M. i, 177).

‘Abhi’, when a vowel follows, is substituted for ‘abbh’.

Examples. 1. abbhudīritaṃ: abhi udīritaṃ; abbh udīritaṃ (44); abbhudīritaṃ. 2. abbhuggacchati: abhi uggacchati; abbh uggacchati (44); abbhuggacchati.

45. 25. Ajjho adhi (58).

Adhi icc’ etassa sare pare ajjhādeso hoti.

Ajjhokāse (Vin. ii, 58), ajjhāgamā.

‘Adhi’, when a vowel follows, is substituted for ‘ajjh’.

Examples. 1. ajjhokāse: adhi okāse; ajjh okāse (45); ajjhokāse. 2. ajjhāgamā: adhi āgamā; ajjh āgamā (45); ajjhāgamā.

46. 26. Te na vā ivaṇṇe (59).

Te ca kho abhi adhi icc’ ete ivaṇṇe pare abbho ajjho iti vuttarūpā na honti vā.

Abhicchitaṃ, adhīritaṃ.

Vā ti kasmā? Abbhīritaṃ, ajjhiṇamutto.

When the letters ‘i’ and ‘ī’ follow ‘abhi’ and ‘adhi’, optionally there is no substitution for the said forms: ‘abbh’ and ‘ajjh’.

Examples. 1. abhicchitaṃ: abhi icchitaṃ; abhicchitaṃ. 2. adhīritaṃ. adhi īritaṃ; adhīritaṃ.

Why say ‘optionally’? To allow the operation of this rule in the following: Abbhīritaṃ, ajjhiṇamutto.

Counter examples. 1. abbhīritaṃ: abhi īritaṃ; abbh īritaṃ (44); abbhīritaṃ. 2. ajjhiṇamutto: adhi iṇa mutto; ajjh iṇa mutto (44); ajjhiṇamutto.

47. 23. Atissa c’ antassa (60).

Ati icc’ etassa antabhūtassa tisaddassa ivaṇṇe pare “sabbo caṃ tī” ti vuttarūpaṃ na hoti.

Atīsigaṇo, atīritaṃ.

Ivaṇṇe ti kasmā? Accantaṃ (VinA. i, 1).

When the letters ‘i’ and ‘ī’ follow, the said form (sutta 19) “sabbo caṃ ti” does not apply to the end syllable ‘ti’ of ‘ati’.

Examples. 1. atīsigaṇo: ati isi gaṇo; at i isi gaṇo (10); at isi gaṇo (12); at īsi gaṇo (15); atīsigaṇo (11). 2. atīritaṃ: ati īritaṃ; at i īritaṃ (10); at īritaṃ (12); atīritaṃ (11).

Why say ‘letters ‘i’ and ‘ī’? To allow the operation of this rule in the following: accantaṃ.

Counter examples. 1. accantaṃ: ati antaṃ; a ti antaṃ (10); a c antaṃ (19); a cc antaṃ (28); accantaṃ (11).

48. 43. Kvaci paṭi patissa (137).

Pati icc’ etassa sare vā byañjane vā pare kvaci paṭi-ādeso hoti.

Paṭaggi (Vin. iv, 279) dātabbo, paṭihaññati (Vin. iv, 292).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Paccantimesu janapadesu (Vin. iii, 287), patilīyati (A. ii, 434), patirūpadesavāso ca (Khu. i, 4).

When a consonant or a vowel follows, sometimes there is the substitution of ‘pati’ for ‘paṭi’.

Examples. 1. paṭaggi: pati aggi; pat i aggi (10); pat aggi (12); paṭ aggi (48); paṭaggi (11). 2. paṭihaññati: pati haññati; paṭi haññati (48); paṭihaññati.

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Paccantimesu janapadesu, patilīyati, patirūpadesavāso ca.

Counter examples. 1. paccantimesu: pati antimesu; pa ti antimesu (10); pa c antimesu (19); pa cc antimesu (28); paccantimesu (11). 2. patilīyati. pati līyati. No substitution. 3. patirūpadesavāso. pati rūpadesavāso. No substitution.

49. 44. Puthass’ u byañjane (129).

Putha icc’ etassa anto saro byañjane pare ukāro hoti.

Puthujjano (D. i, 3), puthubhūtaṃ (D. ii, 89).

Antaggahaṇena aputhass’ āpi sare pare antassa ukāro hoti. Manuññaṃ (Khu. ii, 119).

When a consonant follows, the end vowel of ‘putha’ becomes ‘u’.

Examples. 1. puthujjano: putha jano; puth a jano (10); puth u jano (49); puth u jjano (28); puthujjano (11). 2. puthubhūtaṃ: putha bhūtaṃ; puth a bhūtaṃ (10); puth u bhūtaṃ (49); puthubhūtaṃ (11).

By taking ‘anta’, when a vowel follows, there is also the substitution of the end vowel of words other than ‘putha’ for the letter ‘u’.

Examples. 1. manuññaṃ: mano aññaṃ; man o aññaṃ (10); man u aññaṃ (49); man u ññaṃ (13); manuññaṃ (11).

50. 45. O avassa (126).

Ava icc’ etassa byañjane pare kvaci okāro hoti.

Andhakārena onaddhā (Khu. i, 35).

Kvacī ti kasmā? Avasussatu me sarīre maṃsalohitaṃ (M. ii, 146).

When a consonant follows, sometimes there is the substitution of ‘ava’ for ‘o’.

Examples. 1. onaddhā: ava naddhā; o naddhā (50); onaddhā.

Why say ‘sometimes’? To prevent the operation of this rule in the following: Avasussatu me sarīre maṃsalohitaṃ.

Counter examples. 1. avasussatu. Here there is no substitution of ‘ava’ for ‘o’.

51. 59. Anupadiṭṭhānaṃ vuttayogato (150, 154).

Anupadiṭṭhānaṃ upasagganipātānaṃ sarasandhīhi¹⁶ byañjanasandhīhi vuttasandhīhi ca yathāyogaṃ yojetabbaṃ.

Pāpanaṃ (AbhiA. ii, 466), parāyaṇaṃ (Khu. i, 335), upāyanaṃ, upāhanaṃ (Vin. iii, 272), nyāyogo, nirupadhi (Khu. i, 148), anubodho (AbhiA. i, 296), duvūpasantaṃ, suvūpasantaṃ, dvālayo, svālayo, durākhyātaṃ, svākhyāto, udīritaṃ (Khu. i, 131), samuddiṭṭhaṃ, viyaggaṃ, vijjhaggaṃ, byaggaṃ, avayāgamanaṃ, anveti (Khu. i, 13), anupaghāto (Khu. i, 41), anacchariyaṃ (Vin. iv, 39), pariyesanā (A. i, 570), parāmāso (Abhi. i, 93). Evaṃ sare ca honti.

Pariggaho (D. ii, 50), paggaho (Khu. ix, 291), pakkamo, parakkamo (Abhi. i, 92), nikkamo (Abhi. i, 93), nikkasāvo, nillayanaṃ, dullayanaṃ, dubbhikkhaṃ (Vin. i, 8), dubbuttaṃ, sandiṭṭhaṃ (Vin. i, 112), duggaho, viggaho (D. i, 223), niggato (SuttanipātaA. ii, 208), abhikkamo (M. iii, 302), paṭikkamo (Khu. vi, 171). Evaṃ byañjane ca. Sesā sabbe yojetabbā.

Those forms of prefixes and particles, whose formations have not been shown, should be formed by the rules of vowel-sandhi, consonant-sandhi or verse-sandhi that have been mentioned before.

Examples. When a vowel follows. 1. pāpanaṃ: pa āpanaṃ; p a āpanaṃ (10); p āpanaṃ (12); pāpanaṃ (11). 2. parāyaṇaṃ: parā ayaṇaṃ; par ā ayaṇaṃ (10); par ayaṇaṃ (12); par āyaṇaṃ (15); par āyaṇaṃ (‘ca’ of 20); parāyaṇaṃ (11). Some teachers separate this as paraṃ ayanaṃ.¹⁷ 3. upāyanaṃ: upa ayanaṃ; up a ayanaṃ (10); up ayanaṃ (12); up āyanaṃ (15); upāyanaṃ (11). 4. upāhanaṃ: upa āhanaṃ; up a āhanaṃ (10); up āhanaṃ (12); upāhanaṃ (11). 5. nyāyogo: ni āyogo; ny āyogo (21); nyāyogo. 6. nirupadhi: ni upadhi; ni r upadhi (35); nirupadhi. 7. anubodho: anu bodho (23). 8. duvūpasantaṃ: du upasantaṃ; du v upasantaṃ (35); du v ūpasantaṃ (25); duvūpasantaṃ. 9. suvūpasantaṃ: su upasantaṃ; su v upasantaṃ (35); su v ūpasantaṃ (25); suvūpasantaṃ. 10. dvālayo: du ālayo; dv ālayo (18); dvālayo. 11. svālayo: su ālayo; sv ālayo (18); svālayo. 12. durākhyātaṃ: du ākhyātaṃ; du r ākhyātaṃ (35); durākhyātaṃ. 13. svākhyāto: su ākhyāto; sv ākhyāto (18); svākhyāto. 14. udīritaṃ: u īritaṃ; u r īritaṃ (35); udīritaṃ. 15. samuddiṭṭhaṃ: saṃ uddiṭṭhaṃ; sam uddiṭṭhaṃ (34); samuddiṭṭhaṃ. 16. viyaggaṃ: vi aggaṃ; vi y aggaṃ (35); viyaggaṃ. 17. vijjhaggaṃ: vi adhi aggaṃ; vi ajjh aggaṃ (42); vijjhaggaṃ. 18. byaggaṃ: vi aggaṃ; v i aggaṃ (10); v y aggaṃ (21); b y aggaṃ (‘ca’ of 20); byaggaṃ. 19. avayāgamanaṃ: ava āgamanaṃ; ava y āgamanaṃ (35); avayāgamanaṃ. 20. anveti: anu eti; anv eti (18); anveti. 21. anūpaghāto: anu upaghāto; an upaghāto (12); an ūpaghāto (15); anūpaghāto. 22. anacchariyaṃ: anu acchariyaṃ; an acchariyaṃ (12); anacchariyaṃ. See Nyāsa also. 23. pariyesanā: pari esanā; pari y esanā (35); pariyesanā. 24. parāmāso: pari āmāso; par i āmāso (10); par āmāso (12); parāmāso¹⁸ (11).

When a consonat follows. 1. pariggaho: pari gaho; pari ggaho (28); pariggaho. 2. paggaho: pa gaho; pa ggaho (28); paggaho. 3. pakkamo: pa kamo; pa kkamo (28); pakkamo. 4. parakkamo: para kamo; para kkamo (28); parakkamo. 5. nikkamo: ni kamo; ni kkamo (28); nikkamo. 6. nikkasāvo: ni kasāvo; ni kkasāvo (28); nikkasāvo.

7. nillayanaṃ: ni layanaṃ; ni llayanaṃ (28); nillayanaṃ. 8. dullayanaṃ: du layanaṃ; du llayanaṃ (28); dullayanaṃ. 9. dubbhikkhaṃ: du bhikkhaṃ; du bbhikkhaṃ (29); dubbhikkhaṃ. 10. dubbuttaṃ: du uttaṃ; du v uttaṃ (35); du vv uttaṃ (28); du bb uttaṃ (‘ca’ of 20); dubbuttaṃ. 11. sandiṭṭhaṃ: saṃ diṭṭhaṃ; san diṭṭhaṃ (31); sandiṭṭhaṃ. 12. duggaho: du gaho; du ggaho (28); duggaho. 13. viggaho: vi gaho; vi ggaho (28); viggaho. 14. niggato: ni gato; ni ggato (28); niggato. 15. abhikkamo: abhi kamo; abhi kkamo (28); abhikkamo. 16. paṭikkamo: paṭi kamo; paṭi kkamo (28); paṭikkamo.

Iti sandhi-kappe pañcamo kaṇḍo

Thus ends the fifth section of the chapter on sandhi

Sandhi-kappo niṭṭhito End of the Sandhi Chapter

The applications of ‘ca’ in Kaccāyana:

1. Dragging (anukaḍḍhana),
   1. Dragging so that the word follows to the sutta, e.g., Ādito o ca (69). Here ‘ca’ drags the two kāriyas, ‘aṃ’ and ‘ā’, so that they follow to this sutta 69; otherwise they will not follow to this sutta because there is the ‘o’ already which is the kāriya.
   2. Dragging so that the word dragged does not transport to following sutta/s; e.g., Pubbo ca (16). Here ‘ca’ drags or restrains the ‘lutte’ and ‘dīghaṃ’ so that they do not follow to following sutts/a.
2. Collecting (sampiṇḍana), like English ‘and’. This ‘ca’ usually is employed in the second sentence when there are two sentences, e.g., Evādissa ri, pubbo ca rasso (22) = the beginning of ‘eva’ is changed to ‘ri’, and the previous vowel is shortened. Here ‘ca’ dose not add anything to the statement.
3. Accumulating (samuccaya), like English ‘and also’. Here ‘ca’ indicates some addition to the statement. e.g., Do dhassa ca (20) = ‘dha’ is changed to ‘da’, and also ‘dha’ to ‘ha’ and so on.
4. Delimiting (avadhāraṇa),
   1. To make the application firm, see, e.g., suttas 84, 114.
   2. To limit the application, to debar some application, see, e.g., suttas 79, 83, 89.
5. Smoothness of speech (vācāsiliṭṭha), no extra meaning, but speech sounds good with it according to usage. I cannot give an example for this right now.

kvaci, vā, navā, vibhāsā:

‘kvaci’ shows that the application of the sutta is not very often; it is only sometimes that the application is made. For example, changing the later vowel to ‘asavaṇṇa’ when the previous vowel is elided (by 14) is done only in a few cases; cases where this application is not done are many: yassindriyāni, tathūpamaṃ, yassadāni, saṇṇāiti, chāyāva, mātupaṭṭhānaṃ, madhūdakaṃ, etc. (Kaccāyana Bhāsāṭīkā.)

‘navā’ is said to be the same as ‘kvaci’. And it is said that ‘kvaci’ allows only one form, and no alternative form. E.g., n+upeti bevomes nopeti and not nopeti and nupeti.

‘vā’ and ‘vibhāsā’ are also said to be the same. They show that there can be two forms, one where the application is made and the other where it is not made, unlike ‘kvaci’, and ‘navā’ which allow only one form. E.g., tanniccutaṃ, tan niccutaṃ; dhammañcare, dhammaṃ care, etc.

‘Kvaci’ ‘navā’ ca ekatthā, yebhuyyen’ ekarūpakā,
‘Vā’ ‘vibhāsā’ samānatthā, pāyen’ obhayarūpakā.
(Kaccāyanavaṇṇanā.)

‘Kvaci’ and ‘navā’ have one (the same) meaning; they generally have or show one form. ‘Vā’ and ‘vibhāsā’ have the same meaning; they generally have or show two forms.

2-NĀMA-KAPPA 2-Noun Chapter

PAṬHAMA-KAṆḌA FIRST SECTION

[This chapter deals with formation of inflected nouns, pronouns, etc.]

Footnotes

1. § 1. ↩

2. § 12. ↩

3. § 26. ↩

4. § 25. ↩

5. § 23. ↩

6. Pañcapañca-akkharavanto (K) ↩

7. § 31. ↩

8. § 30. ↩

9. § 29. ↩

10. Translator’s comment UN2 (p. 31): Bhante, please comment on the technical uses of the particle ‘ca’. In my notes, it says that ‘ca’ has two meanings: (1) dragging from previous suttas and (2) stopping from going to other suttas. But here it seems that it is used to extend the application of the sutta to other uses such as the substitution of ‘dha’ for ‘ha’. ↩

11. Translator’s comment UN3 (p. 32): Bhante, please comment what is the difference, if any, among ‘vā’, ‘kvaci’, ‘navā’ and ‘ṭhāne’. I translate ‘vā’ ,following you, as ‘optionally’, ‘kvaci’ as ‘sometimes’, ‘navā’ as ‘occasionally’ and ‘ṭhāne’ as ‘in some places’. Rūpasiddhi §21 says “navā navāsaddo kvaci navā navā kvacisaddapariyāyo.” kvaci kvaci ↩

12. Pulliṅgaṃ? Rū. 49; Sad. 139; Mo. iii, 56; Bā. 41. Suttesu passitabbaṃ. ↩

13. Āragge (K). ↩

14. Translator’s comment UN4 (p. 42): Bhante, what is the example here? ↩

15. Translator’s comment UN5 (p. 43): Bhante, please indicate what are the counter examples? ↩

16. Vuttehi sarasandhīhi (K). ↩

17. Translator’s comment UN6 (p. 51): Bhante, please check the formation of this and the following examples. ↩

18. Translator’s comment UN7 (p. 51): Is is ‘pari’ or ‘para’? ↩