I. Sandhi-kappa

Source

Phramaha Thiab Malai, Kaccāyana-Vyākaraṇa: A Critical Study, Ph.D. thesis, University of Pune, 1997, two volumes (scans on archive.org: volume 1, volume 2). Reproduced from the typescript as a cleaned reading edition: typing errors and clear slips are corrected and every change is listed on the Corrections page; reported variant readings are kept as typed, and the typescript page numbers stand in the source as hidden comments.

Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammāsambuddhassa.
Honour to the Blessed One, the Exalted One, the fully enlightened One.

Seṭṭhaṃ tilokamahitaṃ abhivandiy’aggaṃ
Buddhañ ca dhammaṃ amalaṃ gaṇaṃ uttamañ ca
Satthussa tassa vacanatthavaraṃ suboddhuṃ
Vakkhāmi suttahitaṃ ettha susandhi-kappaṃ.
Seyyaṃ jineritanayena budhā labhanti
Tañ cāpi tassa vacanatthasubodhanena
Atthañ ca akkharapadesu amohabhāvā:
Seyyatthiko padaṃ ato vividhaṃ suṇeyya.

- Having saluted to the supreme chief Buddha worshipped in the three worlds, and also to the pure Dhamma, and to the highest Saṅgha; I am going to describe good Sandhi-kappa in accordance with the sutta-s in order to know well the teacher’s excellent words. The learned attain to the supreme bliss by the way of teachings of Buddha. Further, (the learned) attain to that by means of easily understanding of the sense of teacher’s words. And that sense (is learned) by the knowledge of the sounds and words. Therefore one who aims at that supreme bliss should hear the (description of) words classified differently.

[1] Attho akkharasaññāto. 1

Sabbavacanānaṃ attho akkhareh’eva saññāyate. Akkharavipattiyaṃ hi atthassa dunnayatā hoti; tasmā akkharakosallaṃ bahūpakāraṃ suttantesu.

(1) The meaning is known by sounds.

The meaning of all expressions is known by the sounds only. When there is any mistake in the sounds, the meaning becomes wrong (unintelligible). Therefore skilfulness about the sounds is very useful in the context of sutta-s.

[2] Akkharāpādayo ekacattālīsaṃ. 2

Te ca kho akkharāpi akārādayo ekacattālīsaṃ suttantesu sopakārā honti. Taṃ yathā: a ā i ī u ū e o, ka kha ga gha ṅa ca cha ja jha ña, ṭa ṭha, ḍa ḍha ṇa, ta tha da dha na, pa pha ba bha ma, ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ ti akkharā honti. Akkhara icc anena kv attho? Attho akkharasaññāto (I.1.1).

(2) There are forty-one sounds beginning with a.

Those forty-one sounds beginning with a are useful in the context of sutta-s. Forty-one sounds are: a ā i ī u ū e o, ka kha ga gha ṅa, ca cha ja jha ña, ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa, ta tha da dha na, pa pha ba bha ma, ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ. What is the use of the term akkhara? (It is useful) for, it is used in the rule ‘Attho akkharasaññāto (I.1.1)’.

[3] Tatth’odantā sarā aṭṭha. 3

Tattha akkharesu akārādīsu odantā aṭṭha sarā nāma honti. Taṃ yathā: a ā i ī u ū e o, iti sarā nāma. Sara icc anena kv attho? Sarā sare lopaṃ (I.2.1).

(3) [Among those forty-one sounds] the eight sounds ending with o are called vowels.

Among those forty-one sounds, the eight sounds beginning with a and ending with o are vowels. The eight vowels are: a ā i ī u ū e o. What is the use of the term sara? (It is useful) for, it will be used in the rule ‘Sarā sare lopaṃ (I.2.1)’.

[4] Lahumattā tayo rassā. 4

Tattha aṭṭhasu saresu lahumattā tayo rassā nāma honti. Taṃ yathā: a, i, u iti rassā nāma. Rassa icc anena kv attho? Rassaṃ (I.3.4).

(4) The three of lesser measure are short vowels.

Among those eight short vowels, the three of lesser measure are short vowels. The short vowels are: a i u. What is the use of the term rassa? (It is useful) for, it will be used in the rule ‘Rassaṃ (I.3.4)’.

[5] Aññe dīghā. 5

Tattha aṭṭhasu saresu rassehi aññe pañca sarā dīghā nāma honti. Dīgha icc anena kv attho? Dīghaṃ (I.2.4).

(5) The rest are long vowels.

Among those eight vowels, five vowels other than the short ones are long. What is the use of the term dīgha? (It is useful) for, it will be used in the rule ‘Dīghaṃ (I.2.4)’.

[6] Sesā byañjanā. 6

Ṭhapetvā aṭṭha sare sesā akkharā kakārādayo niggahītantā byañjanā nāma honti. Taṃ yathā: ka kha ga gha ṅa, ca cha ja jha ña, ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa, pa pha ba bha ma, ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ iti byañjanā nāma honti. Byañjana icc anena kv attho? Sarā pakati byañjane (I.3.1).

(6) The remaining sounds are called consonants.

Other than the eight vowels, the remaining sounds beginning with the sound ka and ending with a nasal are called consonants. Namely, ka kha ga gha ṅa, ca cha ja jha ña, ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa, pa pha ba bha ma, ya ra la va sa ha ḷa aṃ, these are called consonants. What is the use of the term byañjana? (It is useful) for, it will be used in the rule ‘Sarā pakati byañjane (I.3.1)’.

[7] Vaggā pañcapañcaso mantā. 7

Tesaṃ kho byañjanānaṃ kakārādayo makārantā pañcapañcaso akkharavanto vaggā nāma honti. Taṃ yathā: ka kha ga gha ṅa, ca cha ja jha ña, ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa, ta tha da dha na, pa pha ba bha ma, iti vaggā nāma honti. Vagga icc anena kv attho? Vaggantaṃ vā vagge (I.4.2).

(7) Five groups of the five sounds each ending with the sound ma are called vagga-s.

Of those sounds beginning with ka and ending with ma the five groups are called vagga-s. Namely, ka kha ga gha ṅa; ca cha ja jha ña; ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa, ta tha da dha na, pa pha ba bha ma; these are called vagga-s. What is the use of the term vagga? (It is useful) for, it will be used in the rule ‘Vaggantaṃ vā vagge (I.4.2)’.

[8] Aṃ iti niggahītaṃ. 8

Aṃ iti niggahītaṃ nāma. Niggahīta icc anena kv attho? Aṃ byañjane niggahītaṃ (I.4.1).

(8) Sound aṃ is niggahīta.

Sound aṃ is called niggahīta. What is the use of the term niggahīta? (It is useful) for, it will be used in the rule ‘Aṃ byañjane niggahītaṃ (I.4.1)’.

[9] Parasamaññā payoge. 9

Yā ca pana sakkatagandhesu samaññā ghosā ti vā aghosā ti vā tā payoge sati etthāpi payuñjante. Tattha ghosavanto nāma: ga gha ṅa, ja jha ña, ḍa ḍha ṇa, da dha na, ba bha ma, ya ra la va ha iti ghosā nāma.

Aghosā nāma: ka kha, ca cha, ṭa ṭha, ta tha, pa pha, sa iti aghosā nāma. Ghosāghosa icc anena kv attho? Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiya-paṭhamā (I.3.7).

(9) The terms from other systems are used, when they are relevant (in grammatical process).

The terms from Sanskrit grammar such as ghosa or aghosa are also used here, when the use occurs. The sounds having ghosa are as follows:- ga gha ṅa; ja jha ña; ḍa ḍha ṇa; da dha na; ba bha ma; ya ra la va ha; these are called ghosa. The sounds which are called aghosa are as follows:- ka kha; ca cha; ṭa ṭha; ta tha; pa pha; sa; these are called aghosa. What is the use of the terms ghosa and aghosa? (They are useful) for, they will be used in the rule ‘Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiya-paṭhamā (I.3.7)’.

[10] Pubbaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ sarena viyojaye. 10

Tattha sandhiṃ kattukāmo pubbabyañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ assaraṃ katvā sarañ ca upari katvā sarena viyojaye. Tatrāyaṃ ādi.

(10) For conjunction, first, one should put the preceding consonant below and having made the vowel above, it should be separated from the vowel.

One who wants to make sandhi, preceding consonant is to be written below without vowel and having put the vowel above it should be separated from vowel. For example ‘tatrāyaṃ ādi’.

[11] Naye paraṃ yutte. 11

Assaraṃ kho byañjanaṃ adhoṭhitaṃ parakkharaṃ naye yutte. Tatrābhiratiṃ iccheyya. Yutte ti kasmā? Akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ ajini maṃ ahāsi me. Ettha pana yuttaṃ na hoti.

Iti sandhikappe paṭhamo kaṇḍo.

(11) The consonant separated from vowel should be joined to the following consonant.

The consonant written below should be taken to the following consonant for joining. For example ‘tatrābhiratiṃ iccheyya’. Why is the word yutte used in the rule? In the following example there are not conjuncts: “akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ ahāsi me”.

Here ends the first section in the chapter on the sandhi.

Notes I.1

This first section is devoted to saññāvidhāna and sarasandhi and covers first eleven rules. The word sandhi is derived from saṃ + dhā¹ (saṃ means near by, together; dhā means put, place, lay in or on, bestow, hold); literal meaning would be: ‘putting together’.² Kaccāyana and Moggallāna do not give the meaning of sandhi, but Aggavaṃsa gives it: “It is called sandhi due to joining the words and sounds together”.³ A.P. Buddhadatta gives it: “When two letters of the same word or of two different words are joined together for the sake of euphony the union is called sandhi (combination or fitting together)”.⁴ It may be noted here that a vowel due to sandhi can be changed into another one, but the words and meanings remain unchanged.

Aggavaṃsa has divided sandhi briefly into two kinds: (1) padasandhi (the euphonic combination of words) which is also called external sandhi or word sandhi e.g. tatrāyaṃ (2) vaṇṇasandhi (the euphonic combination of sounds) which is also called internal sandhi e.g. sāhu; khatyā.⁵ Sandhi is generally divided into three kinds: (1) sarasandhi (combination of vowels) (2) vyañjanasandhi (combination of consonants) (3) niggahītasandhi (combination of nasal and a vowel or a consonant).⁶ Kaccāyana and Moggallāna do not divide sandhi categorically, but we may remark that it is divided into three kinds⁷ as mentioned above. In this context, Buddhappiya re-arranges the rules of sandhi⁸ in Kaccāyana-vyākaraṇa according to their functions in order to help students understand them with ease and divides into five kinds: (1) saññāvidhāna (2) sarasandhi (3) nisedhanasandhi (pakatisandhi) (4) byañjanasandhi (5) niggahītasandhi.⁹

But Aggavaṃsa has divided into four kinds: (1) sarasandhi (2) byañjanasandhi (3) niggahītasandhi (4) sādhāraṇasandhi.¹⁰ In fact, he has divided only into three kinds: (1) sarasandhi (2) byañjanasandhi (3) vomissasandhi.¹¹ Moreover, he considers niggahītasandhi as vomissa- or sādhāraṇasandhi.¹²

In the first rule it is said that the meaning is known by the sound only. It is traditionally believed that the first rule in Pāli grammar was uttered by Gotama or Kaccāyana himself. Francis Mason says: “This aphorism is by some attributed to Gaudama and by others to kachchayano himself. There is nothing in the text to indicate that it had not the same author as the other aphorisms. Some of the old commentators say that it is not an aphorism, sutta, but the first “saying” vākya”.¹³

Akkhara means “sound, tone, word”¹⁴ “that which does not obtain the state of roughness or harshness”¹⁵ “that which is imperishable”.¹⁶

Kaccāyana emphasises skilfulness in akkhara, because one who is not well-versed in it, cannot understand the Tipiṭaka clearly, otherwise, while reading the Tipiṭaka, one would be misled. Therefore, it is said that “one who, while learning the Tipiṭaka, does not learn etymological interpretation, he may doubt in every word (of it) just as a blind elephant (roams) in the forest”.¹⁷ So, first of all, he has laid down this rule.

After having indicated the importance of sounds, Kaccāyana enumerates the sounds numbering forty-one, consisting of thirty three consonants and eight vowels.

But Moggallāna says that the Pāli sounds are 43,¹⁸ including the short ê e.g. ettha and ô e.g. sotthi, Buddhappiya does not accept Moggallāna’s view and says: “Kaccāyana remarks: as far as Buddha’s discourse is concerned, the number of the sounds does not exceed 41”.¹⁹ In this context, Vācissara supports Moggallāna’s view and remarks: “some ignorant people quote the verse written in Rūpasiddhi … (as remarked above), (however) the number of the sounds exceeds 41 due to ê (et) and ô (ot) vowels …”.²⁰

In the rules 2-9, Kaccāyana deals with the division of sounds and has referred to some grammatical terms from Sanskrit grammar for the sake of convenience in usages. The rules 10 and 11 are introductory for the sake of conjunction. Buddhappiya classifies the rules 1-9 under saññāvidhāna, 10 and 11 under sarasandhi. In this context, F. Mason remarks: “The 10th and 11th Aphorisms although closing the first part, have really no connection with it, regarded as orthoepy”.²¹

In this kaṇḍa, there are 11 rules, in the third rule the word tattha is used in the sense of akkharesu; the word tattha is shorter than akkharesu. In the rule 4 the word sarā is understood from previous rule, similarly, in the following rule also. In the rule 4 the word tattha also is understood from preceding rule. In the rule 6 the word akkharā is understood from the second rule. The rules 7, 8, 9 are independent rules. In the rules 7 and 8 definitions of the technical terms are given. The rule 9 is connected with general grammatical scheme of Kaccāyana. The last two rules are related to the process of sandhi.

Rule 2: T, S₂ read -cattāḷīsaṃ for -cattālīsaṃ. In T edition generally the sound ḷ is found in the place of l. In the Mss the spellings l and ḷ are always confused.²² We may accept either because both are in use. T, B₁, S₁, S₂ read iti in the place of ti. B₁, S₁, S₂, Cd read tena in the place of icc anena up to the rule 9 to avoid repetition of the term in question followed by icc anena.

Rule 5: T, B₁, S₁, S₂ add taṃ yathā: ā, ī, ū, e, o iti dīghā nāma (The long vowels are: ā, ī, ū, e, o); T has honti after nāma. In this context, Senart does not record them in his edition. According to the context, they are very significant. Therefore, we prefer to add them as shown by all the versions.

Rule 6: T, B₁, S₁, S₂, add ta, tha, da, dha, na after ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ḍha, ṇa but Senart does not record them in his edition. However, according to the vutti they are very significant, otherwise the groups of the consonants will not be complete. The consonants must be 33, not 28. Therefore, we have to add them.

Rule 9: T reads sakkaṭaganthesu B₁, S₁, S₂ read sakkataganthesu S^a reads sakkaṭaganṭhesu for sakkatagandhesu, T generally reads sakkaṭa in the place of sakkata. Either reading sakkaṭa or sakkata stands for Sanskrit language. The word gandha or gantha means “text, composition, book” but PED quotes gandha as misspelt by Burmese Mss.²³ Dharmananda Kosambi also states: “In the Burmese script,…….. for tha, dha is often written, e.g. gantha “book” as gandha “perfume”; gūtha as gūdha”.²⁴ However, Ariyavaṃsa gives the meaning of gandha to apply to the text.²⁵ But Moggallāna, the author of Abh, uses gandha in the sense of perfume or smell as usual usage.²⁶ The word gantha is always used in the sense of a text, canonical or non-canonical. B₁, S₁, S₂ read yujjante, T, S^a read payujjante for payuñjante. The word yujjante or payujjante is used in the sense of passive voice according to the context of the vutti. B₁ reads ghosā for ghosavanto. T, B₁, S₁, S₂ have ḷa after ha but Senart does not record it in his edition. As a ghosa, ḷa must be there as shown by all the versions. In this context, if we read ghosavanto in the place of ghosā, also aghosā should be read as aghosavanto.

Rule 10: “tatrāyaṃ ādi”: occurs in Dhp 375 as follows:-

“tatrāyam ādi bhavati idha paññassa bhikkhuno;
indriyaguttī santuṭṭhī pātimokkhe ca saṃvaro,
mitte bhajassu kalyāṇe suddhājīve atandite”.

Rule 11: “tatrābhiratiṃ iccheyya”: occurs in Dhp 88 as follows:-

“tatrābhiratim iccheyya hitvā kāme akiñcano
pariyodapeyya attānaṃ cittaklesehi paṇḍito”.

The hemistich “akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ ajini maṃ ahāsi me”: occurs in Dhp 3 as follows:-

“akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ ajini maṃ ahāsi me
ye taṃ upanayhanti veraṃ tesaṃ na sammati”.

[1] Sarā sare lopaṃ. 12

Sarā kho sabbepi sare pare lopaṃ papponti. Yass’indriyāni samathaṃ gatāni; noh’etaṃ bhante; samet’āyasmā saṅghena.

(1) Vowels are dropped, when followed by another vowel.

All the vowels, when followed by another vowel, are dropped. For example ‘yass’indriyāni samathaṃ gatāni’ ‘noh’etaṃ bhante’ ‘samet’āyasmā saṅghena’.

[2] Vā paro asarūpā. 13

Saramhā asarūpā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā. Cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā; kinnu’mā vasamaṇiyo. Vā ti kasmā? Pañc’indriyāni; tayassu dhammā jahitā bhavanti.

(2) Optionally, the vowel following the dissimilar vowel (is lost).

The vowel following the dissimilar vowel is optionally dropped. For example ‘cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā’ ‘kinnu’mā vasamaṇiyo’. Why optionally?: For, in the following examples this loss is not found, for example ‘pañc’indriyāni’ ‘tayassu dhammā jahitā bhavanti’.

[3] Kvac’āsavaṇṇaṃ lutte. 14

Saro kho paro pubbasare lutte kvaci asavaṇṇaṃ pappoti. Saṅkhyaṃ nopeti vedagū; bandhuss’eva samāgamo. Kvacī ti kasmā? Yass’indriyāni; tath’ūpamaṃ dhammaṃ adesayi.

(3) When the preceding vowel is dropped, the following vowel is sometimes changed into dissimilar vowel.

The following vowel is sometimes changed into a dissimilar vowel, when the preceding vowel is dropped. For example ‘saṅkhyaṃ nopeti vedagū’ ‘bandhuss’eva samāgamo’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following examples this change is not found: ‘yass’indriyāni’ ‘tath’ūpamaṃ dhammaṃ adesayi’.

[4] Dīghaṃ. 15

Saro kho paro pubbasare lutte kvaci dīghaṃ pappoti. Saddh’īdha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ; anāgārehi c’ūbhayam. Kvacī ti kasmā? Pañcah’upāli aṅgehi samannāgato; natth’aññaṃ kiñci n’ettha.

(4) (The vowel is) lengthened.

Sometimes, when the preceding vowel is dropped, the following vowel is lengthened. For example ‘saddh’īdha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ’ ‘anāgārehi c’ūbhayaṃ’. Why sometimes? : For, it is not lengthened in the following examples ‘pañcah’upāli aṅgehi samannāgato’ ‘natth’aññaṃ kiñci n’ettha’.

[5] Pubbo ca. 16

Pubbo ca saro paralope kate kvaci dīghaṃ pappoti. Kiṃsū’dha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ? sādhū ti paṭisuṇitvā. Kvacī ti kasmā? Iti’ssa muhuttampi.

(5) And the former (vowel is lengthened).

Sometimes, when the following vowel is dropped, the preceding vowel is lengthened. For example ’kiṃsū ‘dha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ’ ‘sādhū ti paṭisuṇitvā’. Why sometimes?: For, it is not lengthened in the following example: ‘iti’ssa muhuttampi’.

[6] Yaṃ e-dantass’ādeso. 17

Ekārassa antabhūtassa sare pare kvaci yakārādeso hoti. Adhigato kho my āyaṃ dhammo; ty āhaṃ evaṃ vadeyyaṃ; ty assa pahīnā honti. Kvacī ti kasmā? Te’ nāgatā iti n’ettha.

(6) Sound e occurring at the end is changed into sound ya.

The sound e occurring at the end, when vowel follows, is sometimes changed into sound ya. For example ‘adhigato kho my āyaṃ dhammo’ ‘ty āhaṃ evaṃ vadeyyaṃ’ ‘ty assa pahīnā honti’. Why sometimes?: For, this change is not found in the following example: ‘te’ nāgatā iti n’ettha’.

[7] Vaṃ od-udantānaṃ 18

Okārukārānaṃ antabhūtānaṃ sare pare kvaci vakārādeso hoti. Atha khv assa; sv assa; hoti bavhābādho; vatthv ettha vihitaṃ; niccaṃ cakkhv āpāthaṃ āgacchanti. Kvacī ti kasmā? Cattāro’ me bhikkhave dhammā; kinnu’mā vasamaṇiyo.

(7) Final sounds o and u are changed into the sound va.

The sounds o and u occurring at the final position, when followed by vowel are sometimes changed into the sound va. For example ‘atha khv assa’ ‘sv assa’ ‘hoti bavh ābādho’ ‘vatthv ettha vihitaṃ’ ‘niccaṃ cakkhav āpāthaṃ āgacchanti’.

Why sometimes?: For, this change is not found in the following examples: ‘cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā’ ‘kinnu’mā vasamaṇiyo’.

[8] Sabbo caṃ ti. 19

Sabbo ti icc eso saddo sare pare kvaci cakāraṃ pappoti. Icc etaṃ kusalaṃ; icc assa vacaniyyaṃ; paccuttaritvā; paccāharati. Kvacī ti kasmā? Iti’ssa muhuttampi.

(8) The entire expression ti, when followed by another vowel, is sometimes changed into ca.

The entire ti is sometimes changed into ca, if a vowel follows. For example ‘icc etaṃ kusalaṃ’ ‘icc assa vacaniyyaṃ’ ‘paccuttaritvā’ ‘paccāharati’. Why sometimes?: For, this change is not found in the following example ‘iti’ssa muhuttampi’.

[9] Do dhassa ca. 20

Dha icc etassa sare pare kvaci dakārādeso hoti. Ekaṃ id’āhaṃ bhikkhave samayaṃ. Kvacī ti kasmā? Idh’eva maraṇaṃ bhavissati. Casaddaggahaṇena dhakārassa hakārādeso hoti: sāhu dassanaṃ ariyānaṃ. Suttavibhāgena bahudhāpi siyā. To dassa yathā: sugato; ṭo tassa yathā: dukkaṭaṃ; dho tassa yathā: gandhabbo; tro tassa yathā: atrajo; ko gassa yathā: kulupako; lo rassa yathā: mahāsālo; jo yassa yathā: gavajo; bo vassa yathā: kubbato; ko yassa yathā: sako; yo jassa yathā: niyaṃ puttaṃ; ko tassa yathā: niko; co tassa yathā: bhacco; pho passa yathā: nipphatti, iccevam ādayo.

(9) Dha (followed by a vowel) is (sometimes) changed into da.

If a vowel follows, dha too is sometimes changed into d. For example ‘ekaṃ id’āhaṃ bhikkhave samayaṃ’. Why sometimes?: For, this change is not found in the following example: ‘idh’eva maraṇaṃ bhavissati’. The word ca in the rule indicates that dha is changed into h, for example ‘sāhu dassanaṃ ariyānaṃ’. By suttavibhāga the following different substitutes also may be indicated: d is changed into t as sugato; t is changed into ṭ as dukkaṭaṃ; t is changed into dh as gandhabbo; t is changed into tr as atrajo; g is changed into k as kulupako; r is changed into l as mahāsālo; y is changed into j as gavajo; v is changed into b as kubbato; y is changed into k as sako; j is changed into y as niyaṃ puttaṃ; t is changed into k as niko; t is changed into c as bhacco; t is changed into ph as nipphatti and so on.

[10] Ivaṇṇo yaṃ na vā. 21

Pubbo ivaṇṇo sare pare yakāraṃ pappoti na vā. Paṭisanthāravuty assa; sabbā vity anubhūyate. Navā ti kasmā? Pañcah’aṅgehi samannāgato; muttacāgī anuddhato.

(10) (When a vowel follows,) i and ī are changed into y or optionally not.

If a vowel follows, the preceding i and ī are optionally changed into y. For example ‘paṭisanthāravuty assa’ ‘sabbā vity anubhūyate’. Why optionally?: For this change is not found in the following examples: ‘pañcah’aṅgehi samannāgato’ ‘muttacāgī anuddhato’.

[11] Evādissa ri pubbo ca rasso. 22

Saramhā parassa evassa ekārassa ādissa rikāro hoti pubbo ca saro rasso hoti na vā. Yatha-r-iva vasudhātalañ ca sabbaṃ; tatha-r-iva guṇavā supūjānīyo. Navā ti kasmā? Yathā eva; tathā eva.

Iti sandhikappe dutiyo kaṇḍo.

(11) The initial vowel in eva following a vowel is optionally changed into ri and the preceding vowel is shortened.

If eva follows a vowel, then e of eva is optionally changed into ri and the preceding vowel is shortened. For example ‘yatha-r-iva vasudhātalañ ca sabbaṃ’, ‘tatha-r-iva guṇavā supūjānīyo’. Why optionally?: For, this change is not found in the following examples: ‘yathā eva’ ‘tathā eva’.

Here ends the second section in the chapter on the sandhi.

Notes I.2

This second section is devoted to sarasandhi and covers eleven rules. Sara means “sound, voice, intonation, accent”.²⁷ Aggavaṃsa gives the meaning of sara as: “Those are vowels which go to the state of being heard, or which lead the associated consonant to the state of being heard. The etymologist, however, says that vowels are those which shine forth themselves”.²⁸ Buddhappiya gives as: “Vowels are so called as ‘they move or go’ or as: ‘they make the consonant move’”²⁹ and the meaning of sarasandhi as: “Joining of vowels”; moreover, “it is accomplished due to changing and elision of vowel”.³⁰ According to A.P.

Buddhadatta: “(Sarasandhi takes place) when a word ending in a vowel is joined to a word beginning with a vowel, or when two adjacent vowels of the same word are joined together”.³¹

In the second kaṇḍa, there are 11 rules. In the rule 13 the word lopaṃ is understood from previous rule. In the rule 14 the word kvaci cancels the word vā occurring in the preceding rule. In the rule 15 the word lutte and kvaci are understood from the preceding rule. However, the word saro also is understood from the rule 12 in which it occurs in plural [sarā]. In the rule 16 the words kvaci and dīghaṃ are understood from the rules 14 and 15, similarly, the word saro in singular is understood from the rule 12 where it occurs in plural. In the rule 17 the words sare and kvaci are understood from the rules 12 and 14, similarly, in the rules 18, 19 and 20. In the rule 20 the word ca stands for sabbo according to the Kaccāyana’s scheme. The rules 19 and 20 are special rules about particular sound change. In the rule 21 the words na and vā are used to cancel the word kvaci occurring in the rule 14. According to Nyāsapāṭha, Rūpasiddhi and Suttaniddesapāṭha, they stand for kvaci³² which means ‘sometimes’. If it is so, Kaccāyana would not have repeated it in the rule 21. The rule 21 is general rule, but the rule 22 is special rule for particular words. In the last rule there are two grammatical operations joint with the word ca because Kaccāyana wants to cover this single expression in single rule. Also the words na and vā are understood from previous rule; it means the rules 21 and 22 are covered under the expression na vā. In the rule 22 also the word saro is understood from the rule 12 where it occurs in the plural.

Rule 1: “yass’indriyāni samathaṃ gatāni”: occurs in Dhp 94 as follows:-

“yass’indriyāni samathaṃ gatāni
assā yathā sārathinā sudantā
pahīnamānassa anāsavassa
devāpi tassa pihayanti tādino”.

“no h’etaṃ bhante”: occurs in Vin I 14, 8-10 as follows:- “yaṃ pan’āniccaṃ dukkhaṃ vipariṇāmadhammaṃ kallaṃ nu taṃ samanupassitaṃ etaṃ mama, eso’ham asmi, eso me attā’ti. No h’etaṃ bhante”. “samet’āyasmā saṅghena”: occurs in Vin III 172, 34-36 as follows:- “māyasmā samaggassa saṅghassa bhedāya parakkami bhedanasaṃvattanikaṃ vā adhikaraṇaṃ samādāya paggayha aṭṭhāsi, samet’āyasmā saṅghena”. T adds saddhiṃ after saṅghena which is not found in the canonical quotation.

Rule 2: “cattāro’ me bhikkhave dhammā”: occurs in A II 147, 18-19 as follows:- “cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā saddhammassa sammosāya antaradhānāya saṃvattanti”. T, B₁, S₁, S₂ read kinnu’māva samaṇiyo for kinnu’mā vasamaṇiyo. Obviously splitting into kinnu’mā and vasamaṇiyo is not correct, so, it should be corrected according to all the versions. This quotation occurs in Vin IV 236, 5 as follows:- “kiṃ nu’mā’va samaṇiyo yā samaṇiyo sakyadhītaro”. T reads yass’indriyāni for pañc’indriyāni, whatever reading we may accept, here the exception of the rule is proved. “pañc’indriyāni”: occurs in Dhātuk 1, 15-16 as follows:- “catasso appamaññāyo pañc’indriyāni pañca balāni”. “tayassu dhammā jahitā bhavanti”: occurs in Khp VI 10 as follows:-

“sahā v’assa dassanasampadāya
tayassu dhammā jahitā bhavanti
sakkāyadiṭṭhi vicikicchitañ ca
sīlabbataṃ vāpi yad atthi kiñci
catūh’apāyehi ca vippamutto
cha cābhiṭhānāni abhabbo kātuṃ,
idampi saṅghe ratanaṃ paṇītaṃ,
etena saccena suvatthi hotu”.

Rule 3: T reads sarā kho parā ….. papponti for saro kho paro ….. pappoti.

“saṅkhyaṃ nopeti vedagū”: occurs in S IV 206, 3-4 (v.l.) as follows:-

“so vedanā pariññāya diṭṭhe dhamme anāsavo
kāyassa bhedā dhammaṭṭho saṅkhaṃ nopeti vedagū”.

“yass’indriyāni”: occurs in Dhp 94 as quoted under I.2.1. above.

T, B₁, S₁, S₂ read dhammavaraṃ for dhammaṃ. The reading dhammavaraṃ should be accepted. “tath’ūpamaṃ dhammavaraṃ adesayi”: occurs in Khp VI 12 as follows:-

“vanappagumbe yathā phussitagge
gimhāna māse paṭhamasmiṃ gimhe,
tath’ūpamaṃ dhammavaraṃ adesayi
nibbānagāmiṃ paramaṃhitāya,
idam pi buddhe ratanaṃ paṇītaṃ,
etena saccena suvatthi hotu”.

Rule 4: “saddh’īdha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ” : occurs in Sn 182 as follows:-

“saddh’īdha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ
dhammo suciṇṇo sukham āvahāti
saccaṃ have sādutaraṃ rasānaṃ
paññājīvaṃ jīvitam āhu seṭṭhaṃ”.

“anāgārehi c’ūbhayaṃ”: occurs in Dhp 404 as follows:-

“asaṃsaṭṭhaṃ gahaṭṭhehi anāgārehi c’ūbhayaṃ
anokasāriṃ apicchaṃ tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ”.

“pañcah’upāli aṅgehi samannāgato”: occurs in Vin V 197, 20-21 as follows: - “pañcah’upāli aṅgehi samannāgato bhikkhu ubbāhikāya na sammannitabbo”. B₁ omits n’ettha after natth’aññaṃ kiñci.

Rule 5: “kiṃsū’dha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ” : occurs in Sn 181 as follows:-

“kiṃ sū’dha vittaṃ purisassa seṭṭhaṃ
kiṃ su suciṇṇaṃ sukham āvahāti
kiṃ su have sādutaraṃ rasānaṃ
kathaṃjīvaṃ jīvitam āhu seṭṭhaṃ”.

“sādhū’ti paṭisuṇitvā”: occurs in Vin IV 301, 12-13 as follows:- “thullanandā bhikkhunī sādhū’ti paṭisuṇitvā n’eva vūpasameti na vūpasamāya ussukkaṃ karoti”. The reading paṭissuṇitvā also is found in some versions. “iti’ssa muhuttam pi”: occurs in Vin IV 149, 9-10 as follows:- “yo pana bhikkhu bhikkhussa sañcicca kukkuccaṃ upadaheyya iti’ssa muhuttaṃ pi aphāsu bhavissatī ti”.

Rule 6: “adhigato kho my āyaṃ dhammo”: occurs in Vin I 4,33-35 as follows:- “adhigato kho my āyaṃ dhammo gambhīro duddaso duranubodho santo paṇīto atakkāvacaro nipuṇo paṇḍitavedanīyo”. “ty āhaṃ evaṃ vadeyyaṃ”: occurs in M I 12, 31-32, 1 as follows:- “atha dve bhikkhū āgaccheyyuṃ jigacchādubbalyaparetā. Ty āhaṃ evaṃ vadeyyaṃ”.

B₁, S₁, S₂ read ty āssa for ty assa,³³ whatever reading we may accept, changing into the semi-vowel y is proved in these expressions i.e. ty āssa or ty assa. In the similar context K.R. Norman remarks: “Where the initial a- is followed by a double consonant, the short -a- usually remains after crasis, e.g. bahujano + assa> bahujanassa, D III 169, 27*,….. The long -ā- which arises from crasis is, however, sometimes retained even before a double consonant, e.g. tayāssu, Sn 231 (v.l.), ….”. He further remarks: “Such forms are probably the result of scribes showing their knowledge of Sanskrit sandhi”.³⁴ “ty āssa”: occurs in A I 154, 7-8 as follows:- “sace maṃ koci kiñci āha ty āssa rājāno vā rājamahāmattā vā pariyodhāya atthaṃ bhaṇanti”. B₁ has given this example from A I which supports the rule, but B₁ does not give the full sentence as given by the vutti. However, “ty āssa pahīnā honti” seems to be a sentence composed by the vutti.

B₁ reads ne’nāgatā for te’nāgatā, whatever reading we may accept, the exception for the semi-vowel y is proved in these expressions, but the reading ne’ nāgatā seems to be closer to the original.³⁵ B₁ puts comma after iti which is not found in some versions. Here the splitting into two examples given by the vutti seems to be closer to the original.³⁶ Therefore, the comma is significant.

Rule 7: “atha khv assa”: occurs in M I 185, 34 (v.l.) as follows:- “atha khv assa no t’ev’ettha hoti”. It may be noted here that the semi-colon put after sv assa should be shifted after hoti as in all the versions. T, B₁, S^a read bahvābādho for bavhābādho. We may accept either because the interchange of sounds v and h is optional.³⁷ Both are in use. “bahvābādho”: occurs in S I 94, 1-2 as follows:- “so ca hoti dubbaṇṇo duddasiko akoṭikamo bahvābādho”. The semi-colon put after vihitaṃ should be shifted after niccaṃ as in all the versions. “cattāro’me bhikkhave dhammā”: occurs in A II 147, 18-19 as quoted under I.2.2. above. “kinnu’māva samaṇiyo”: occurs in Vin IV 236,5 as quoted under I.2.2. above.

Rule 8: “icc etaṃ kusalaṃ”: occurs in Vin III 173, 2-3 as follows:- “yāvatatiyaṃ ce samanubhāsiyamāno taṃ paṭinissajjeyya, icc etaṃ kusalaṃ”.

T reads vacanīyo, B₁, S₁, S₂ read vacanīyaṃ for vacaniyyaṃ. The reading vacanīyaṃ should be accepted here. “icc assa vacanīyaṃ”: occurs in D II 55, 20-21 as follows:- “jātipaccayā jarāmaraṇan ti icc assa vacanīyaṃ”. “paccuttaritvā”: occurs in Ud 84, 4-6 as follows: - “upasaṃkamitvā kukuṭṭhaṃ nadiṃ ajjhogāhetvā nahātvā pivitvā ca paccuttaritvā yena ambavanaṃ ten’ upasaṅkami”. “paccāharati”: occurs in Vin III 140, 11-12 as follows:- “paṭigaṇhati vīmaṃsati paccāharati, āpatti saṅghādisesassa”. “it’issa muhuttampi”: occurs in Vin IV 149, 9-10 as quoted under I.2.5 above.

Rule 9: “ekam id’āhaṃ bhikkhave samayaṃ”: occurs in M I 326, 5-6 as follows:- “ekam id’āhaṃ bhikkhave samayaṃ ukkaṭṭhāyaṃ viharāmi subhagavane sālarājamūle”. “idh’eva maraṇaṃ bhavissati”: occurs in Vin III 13, 14-17 as follows:- “atha kho sudinno kalandakaputto na maṃ mātāpitaro anujānanti agārasmā anagāriyaṃ pabbajjāyā’ti tatth’eva anantarahitāya bhūmiyā nipajji idh’eva me maraṇaṃ bhavissati pabbajjā vā’ti”. “sāhu dassanaṃ ariyānaṃ”: occurs in Dhp 206 (v.l.) as follows:-

“sāhu dassanam ariyānaṃ sannivāso sadā sukho
adassanena bālānaṃ niccam eva sukhī siyā”.

“sugato”: occurs in Vin III 1, 12-15 as follows:- “iti pi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno sugato lokavidū anuttaro purisadhammasārathi satthā devamanussānaṃ buddho bhagavā”. “dukkaṭaṃ”: occurs in Vin V 149, 9-10 as follows:-

“dukkaṭan ti yaṃ vuttaṃ taṃ suṇohi yathātathaṃ
aparaddhaṃ viraddhañ ca khalitaṃ yañ ca dukkaṭaṃ”.

“gandhabbo”: occurs in M I 265, 37 as follows:- “gandhabbo ca na paccupaṭṭhito hoti”. B₁, S₁, S₂ read tro ttassa for tro tassa, the reading tro ttassa is better.³⁸ “atrajo”: occurs in Vin I 310, 7-8 as follows:-

“putto sālavatikāya abhayassa hi atrajo
jīvatī ti kumārena saṅkhāto jīvako iti”.

“kulūpako”: occurs in Vin III 131,28-30 as follows:- “tena kho pana samayena āyasmā udāyī sāvatthiyaṃ kulūpako hoti bahukāni kulāni upasaṅkamati”. “mahāsālo” : occurs in D II, 146, 16-18 as follows:- “ettha bahū khattiyamahāsālā brāhmaṇamahāsālā gahapatimahāsālā tathāgate abhippasannā”. “gavajo”: occurs in Ja VI 277, 23-24 as follows:-

“palasatā ca gavajā ca mahisā rohitā rurū
eṇeyyā ca varāhā ca gaṇino niṃkasūkarā”.

B₁ reads bbo vvassa for bo vassa. “kubbato”: occurs in Ja III 26, 24-25 as follows:-

“mama lohitabhakkhassa niccaṃ luddāni kubbato
dantantaragato santo taṃ bahuṃ yaṃ hi jīvasi”.

T, B₁, S₁ read sake for sako, whatever reading we may accept, the changing of y into k is proved in both expressions, but the reading sake is better and closer to the original,³⁹ and occurs in Ja VI 505, 16-17 as follows:-

“so’haṃ sake abhisasiṃ yajamāno sake pure
sivānaṃ vacanatthena samhā raṭṭhā nirajj’ahaṃ”.

“niyaṃ puttaṃ”: occurs in Khp IX 7 as follows:-

“mātā yathā niyaṃ puttaṃ
āyusā ekaputtam anurakkhe
evampi sabbabhūtesu
mānasaṃ bhāvaye aparimāṇaṃ”.

T, B₁, S₁, S₂ read niyako for niko, the reading niko is obviously incorrect, so it should be corrected to niyako as shown in all the versions.⁴⁰ B₁ reads cco ttassa for co tassa. S₂ adds bo passa, yathā: nibbatti (p is changed into b as nibbatti) and kho kassa, yathā: nikkhamati (k is changed into kh as nikkhamati), B₁ adds only kho kassa, yathā: nikkhamati.

Rule 10: The reading na vā or navā is split or joint as it is found in some versions as discussed earlier. T reads paṭisaṇṭhāra- for paṭisanthāra-; in T edition the reading paṭisaṇṭhāra- is often found. “paṭisanthāravuty assa”: occurs in Dhp 376 (v.l.) as follows :-

“paṭisanthāravuty assa ācārakusalo siyā
tato pāmojjabahulo dukkhass’antaṃ karissati”.

The readings vity anubhūyate and vity ānubhūyate are found in different versions, both are in use. The similar case is discussed under I.2.6. above.

“pañcah’aṅgehi samannāgato”: occurs in Vin V 197, 26-27 as follows:- “imehi kho upāli pañcah’aṅgehi samannāgato bhikkhu ubbāhikāya sammannitabbo”.

Rule 11: “yatha-r-iva”: occurs in D I 90, 14-17 as follows:- “ye ca kho te bho gotama muṇḍakā samaṇakā ibbhā kiṇhā bandhupādāpaccā tehi pi me saddhiṃ evaṃ kathāsallāpo hoti yatha-r-iva bhotā gotamena”.

The reading supūjānīyo should be corrected to supūjanīyo as it is in all the versions; because when the suffix anīya is added to the root, the initial a should not be lengthened.

[1] Sarā pakati byañjane. 23

Sarā kho byañjane pare pakatirūpā honti. Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā; pamādo maccuno padaṃ; tiṇṇo pāragato ahu.

(1) A vowel followed by a consonant remains unchanged.

When a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning with a consonant, it will not be changed. For example ‘manopubbaṅgamā dhammā’ ‘pamādo muccuno padaṃ’ ‘tiṇṇo pāragato ahu’.

[2] Sare kvaci. 24

Sarā kho sare pare kvaci pakatirūpā honti. Ko imaṃ paṭhaviṃ vijessati. Kvacī ti kasmā? Appassut’āyaṃ puriso.

(2) Vowels sometimes remain unchanged, when followed by another vowel.

A vowel, when another vowel follows, sometimes remains unchanged. For example ‘ko imaṃ paṭhaviṃ vijessati’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following example, this change is found: ‘appassut’āyaṃ puriso’.

[3] Dīghaṃ. 25

Saro kho byañjane pare kvaci dīghaṃ pappoti. Sammā dhammaṃ vipassato; evaṃ gāme munī care; khantī paramaṃ tapo titikkhā. Kvacī ti kasmā? Idha modati, pecca modati; patilīyati; patihaññati.

(3) [Sometimes vowels] are lengthened.

Vowels, when followed by a consonant, are sometimes lengthened. For example ‘sammā dhammaṃ vipassato’ ‘evaṃ gāme munī care’ ‘khantī paramaṃ tapo titikkhā’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following examples, the vowels are not lengthened: ‘idha modati’ ‘pecca modati’ ‘patilīyati’ ‘patihaññati’.

[4] Rassaṃ. 26

Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci rassaṃ papponti. Bhovādināma so hoti; yathābhāviguṇena so. Kvacī ti kasmā? Sammāsamādhi; sā vitti chandaso mukhaṃ; upanīyati jīvitaṃ appamāyuṃ.

(4) [Sometimes vowels] are shortened.

Vowels, when followed by a consonant, are sometimes shortened. For example, ‘bhovādināma so hoti’ ‘yathābhāviguṇena so’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following examples, vowels are not shortened: ‘sammāsamādhi’ ‘sā vitti chandaso mukhaṃ’ ‘upanīyati jīvitaṃ appamāyuṃ’.

[5] Lopañ ca tatrākāro. 27

Sarā kho byañjane pare kvaci lopaṃ papponti tatra ca lope kate akārāgamo hoti. Sa sīlavā; sa paññavā; esa dhammo sanantano; sa ve kāsāvaṃ arahati; sa mānakāmopi bhaveyya; sa ve muni jātibhayaṃ adassī. Kvacī ti kasmā? So muni; tena so muni; eso dhammo padissati; na so kāsāvaṃ arahati.

(5) [Sometimes] (vowels) are dropped and the sound a is inserted.

Vowels, when followed by a consonant, are sometimes dropped and after that the sound a is inserted.

For example ‘sa sīlavā’ ‘sa paññavā’ ‘esa dhammo sanantano’ ‘sa ve kāsāvaṃ arahati’ ‘sa mānakāmopi bhaveyya’ ‘sa ve muni jātibhayaṃ adassī’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following examples, this change is not found: ‘so muni’ ‘tena so muni’ ‘eso dhammo padissati’ ‘na so kāsāvaṃ arahati’.

[6] Paradvebhāvo ṭhāne. 28

Saramhā parassa byañjanassa dvebhāvo hoti ṭhāne. Idha ppamodo purisassa; jantuno pabbajjaṃ kittayissāmi; catuddasī; abhikkantataro panītataro ca. Ṭhāne ti kasmā? Idha modati, pecca modati.

(6) A consonant following a vowel is doubled at its place.

The consonant occurring after a vowel is doubled at its place. For example ‘idha ppamodo purisassa’ ‘jantuno pabbajjaṃ kittayissāmi’ ‘catuddasī’ ‘abhikkantataro panītataro ca’. Why at its place?: For, in the following example, the consonant is doubled, but it is not according to the present rule: ‘idha modati, pecca modati’.

[7] Vagge ghosāghosānaṃ tatiya-paṭhamā. 29

Vagge kho byañjanānaṃ ghosāghosabhūtānaṃ saramhā paresaṃ yathāsaṅkhyaṃ tatiya-paṭhamakkharā dvebhāvaṃ gacchanti ṭhāne. Eso’va ca jjhānaphalo; yatra ṭṭhitaṃ na ppasaheyya; maccusele yathā pabbatamuddhaniṭṭhito; cattāriṭṭhānāni naro pamatto. Ṭhāneti kasmā? Idha cetaso daḷhaṃ gaṇhāti thāmasā.

Iti sandhikappe tatiyo kaṇḍo.

(7) In a class the ghosa and aghosa sounds are substituted by the third and first sound respectively.

The ghosa and aghosa consonants preceded by a vowel change into third and first consonants of that class according to sequence and they are doubled at their places. For example, ‘eso’va ca jjhānaphalo’ ‘yatra ṭṭhitaṃ na ppasaheyya’ ‘maccusele yathā pabbatamuddhani ṭṭhito’ ‘cattāri ṭṭhānāni naro pamatto’. Why at their places? For, in the following example, it is not found: ‘idha cetaso daḷhaṃ gaṇhāti thāmasā’.

Here ends the third section in the chapter on the sandhi.

Notes I.3

This third section is devoted to byañjanasandhi and covers seven rules. byañjana means “sign, mark, letter”.⁴¹ It is derived from vi + añja (vi means clear, distinct, añja means cause to appear, make clear, shine, reveal, express); therefore the literal meaning is that “by which the meaning is made clear”.⁴²

Aggavaṃsa gives four explanations of byañjana as:- “Those which express the meaning after having depended on a vowel as in the case of dhī, bhū, go etc.; those which express the meaning after having depended on the collection of vaṇṇa-s together with vowels, as in the case of buddho bhagavā etc.; according to the Buddhist etymologists, vyañjana-s are those which produce vowels; according to the Vedists vyañjana-s are those which follow vowels”.⁴³ Further, vyañjanasandhi is explained as: “Joining of consonants which is accomplished due to substitution and elision of consonants”.⁴⁴ A.P. Buddhadatta explains vyañjanasandhi as: “When a word ending in a vowel is joined to a word beginning with a consonant”.⁴⁵

Buddhappiya classifies the rules 1 and 2 under nisedhanasandhi (pakatisandhi). However, if we consider three kinds of sandhi-s as remarked in the chapter I, the rule 1 comes under byañjanasandhi, and 2 under sarasandi.

In the third kaṇḍa, there are seven rules. In the rule 24 the words sarā and pakati are understood, but the word kvaci puts limit to the general rule 23. In the rule 25 the words sarā and byañjane are understood, therefore the word sare is cancelled. This is significant from the view-point of arrangement. The same is true with the rule 26. However, in the both the word kvaci is understood. In the rule 27 two grammatical operations are laid down with the use of the word ca. The words sarā, byañjane and kvaci are continued in the rule 27. The word tatra is significant because it is not generally used in a rule. It is used in the sense of locative absolute. In the rule 28 the word ṭhāne is in locative. It is significant because the position of the duplicated sound is indicated in the context of a single word. The last rule also deals with duplicated sound. However, the word ghosāghosānaṃ is not defined by Kaccāyana. In this context the rule 9 in the first kaṇḍa is important. In this last rule, also the word ṭhāne is understood.

In the rule 28 the word saramhā is understood in the context of the word para. Here Kaccāyana uses the shorter word para instead of the word saramhā or sarā. Therefore the compound paradvebhāvo is significant. In the rule 29 the word akkharā is understood from the rule 2 in the first kaṇḍa. If the word akkharā is not taken from that rule, the word sarā continues from the beginning of the present kaṇḍa which, however, is not applicable here. This is rather strange from the view of the arrangement of the rules.

Rule 1: B₁, S₂ read pakatirūpāni for pakatirūpā. In this context we may note that nom. and acc. pl. neut. forms are found often truncated in the canonical poetry.⁴⁶ “manopubbaṅgamā dhammā”: occurs in Dhp 1 as follows:

“manopubbaṅgamā dhammā monoseṭṭhā manomayā
manasā ce paduṭṭhena bhāsati vā karoti vā
tato naṃ dukkham anveti cakkaṃ va vahato padaṃ”.

“pamādo maccuno padaṃ”: occurs in Dhp 21 as follows:-

“ appamādo amatapadaṃ pamādo maccuno padaṃ
appamattā na mīyanti ye pamattā yathā matā”.

B₁ reads pāraṅgato for pāragato, “tiṇṇo pāragato ahu”: occurs in Dhp 414 as follows:-

“yo imaṃ palipathaṃ duggaṃ
saṃsāraṃ moham accagā
tiṇṇo pāragato jhāyī
anejo akathaṃkathī
anupādāya nibbuto
tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ”.

This quotation is given by B₁. The word ahu is not found in any version of Dhp. So, we may remark that in order to give the full sentence in prose as an example, the vutti might have replaced the nominal form jhāyī with the verbal one, that is, ahu.

Rule 2: T, B₁ read pathaviṃ for paṭhaviṃ. It may be noted here that according to orthography of Burmese Mss the reading pathavī is generally found.⁴⁷ PED also gives two forms as having the same meaning.⁴⁸ “ko imaṃ paṭhaviṃ vijessati”: occurs in Dhp 44 as follows:-

“ko imaṃ paṭhaviṃ vijessati
yamalokaṃ ca imaṃ sadevakaṃ?
ko dhammapadaṃ sudesitaṃ
kusalo puppham iva-ppacessati?”.

B₁ reads vicessati for vijessati which is found in the variant readings of Dhp 44 also.⁴⁹ “appassut’āyaṃ puriso”: occurs in Dhp 152 as follows:-

“appassut’āyaṃ puriso balivaddo va jīrati
maṃsāni tassa vaḍḍhanti paññā tassa na vaḍḍhati”.

Rule 3: T, B₁, S₁, S₂ read sarā…. papponti for saro…. pappoti. Here Senart’s reading is not keeping with the vutti; it should be in plural as it is shown by all the versions. There are many such occurrences and Senart also reads sarā…. papponti in the following vutti. Therefore the reading sarā….papponti is better.

“sammā dhammaṃ vipassato”: occurs in Dhp 373 as follows:-

“suññāgāraṃ paviṭṭhassa
santacittassa bhikkhuno
amānusī ratī hoti
sammā dhammaṃ vipassato”.

“evaṃ gāme munī care”: occurs in Dhp 49 as follows:-

“yathāpi bhamaro pupphaṃ
vaṇṇagandhaṃ aheṭhayaṃ
paleti rasam ādāya
evaṃ gāme munī care”.

“khantī paramaṃ tapo titikkhā”: occur in Dhp 184 as follows:-

“khantī paramaṃ tapo titikkhā
nibbānaṃ paramaṃ vadanti buddhā
na hi pabbajito parūpaghātī
samaṇo hoti paraṃ viheṭhayanto”.

“idha modati” and “pecca modati”: occur in Dhp 16 as follows:-

“idha modati pecca modati
katapuñño ubhayattha modati
so modati so pamodati
disvā kammavisuddhim attano”.

“paṭilīyati”: occurs in A IV 48, 3-5 as follows:- “maraṇasaññāparicitena bhikkhave bhikkhuno cetasā bahulaṃ viharato jīvitanikantiyā cittaṃ paṭilīyati paṭikuṭati paṭivaṭṭati na sampasārīyati”. “paṭihaññati”: occurs in Vin II 147, 33 as follows:- “tato vātātapo gharo sañjāto paṭihaññati”.

The transformation of ṭ into t is found in the Mss. PED indicates pati as a doublet of paṭi.⁵⁰

Rule 4: “bhovādināma so hoti”: occurs in Dhp 396 as follows:-

“na c’āhaṃ brāhmaṇaṃ brūmi
yonijaṃ mattisambhavaṃ
bhovādi nāma so hoti
sa ve hoti sakiñcano
akiñcanaṃ anādānaṃ
tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ”.

“sammāsamādhi”: occurs in Vin I 10,21-23 as follows:- “sammādiṭṭhi sammāsaṃkappo sammāvācā sammākammanto sammāājīvo sammāvāyāmo sammāsati sammāsamādhi”.

The splitting into sa vitti should be corrected to sāvittī. Sāvittī is a name of a Vedic mantra representing the Veda-s.⁵¹ “sāvittī chandaso mukhaṃ” : occurs in Sn 568 as follows:-

“aggihuttamukhā yaññā sāvittī chandaso mukhaṃ
rājā mukhaṃ manussānaṃ nadīnaṃ sāgaro mukhaṃ”.

This is quoted by T. B₁, S₁, S₂ read -appamāyu for -appamāyuṃ. “upanīyati jīvitam appam āyu”: occurs in S I 2, 22-25 as follows:-

“upanīyati jīvitam appam āyu
jarūpanītassa na santi tāṇā
etaṃ bhayaṃ maraṇe pekkhamāno
puññāni kayirātha sukhāvahāni”.

Senart and T have the form -āyuṃ. The aṃ ending may be caused by the influence of jīvītaṃ.

Rule 5: “sa sīlavā”: occurs in Dhp 84 as follows:-

“na attahetu na parassa hetu
na puttam icche na dhanaṃ na raṭṭhaṃ
na iccheyya adhammena samiddhim attano
sa sīlavā paññavā dhammiko siyā”.

“sa paññavā”: occurs in Ja V 148, 22-24 as follows:-

“sa paññavā kāmaguṇe avekkhati
aniccato dukkhato rogato ca
evaṃvipassī pajahāti chandaṃ
dukkhesu kāmesu mahabbhayesu”.

“esa dhammo sanantano”: occurs in Dhp 5 as follows:-

“na hi verena verāni sammant’ idha kudācana
averena ca sammanti esa dhammo sanantano”.

“sa ve kāsāvaṃ arahati”: occurs in Dhp 10 as follows:-

“yo ca vantakasāv’assa sīlesu susamāhito
upeto damasaccena sa ve kāsāvam aharati”.

“so muni”: occurs in Dhp 269 as follows:-

“pāpāni parivajjeti sa munī tena so muni
yo munāti ubho loke munī tena pavuccati”.

In this case, we may note that the addition of tena so muni after so muni by T, and Senart seems to be inappropriate. If the full pāda is to be quoted, we have not so twice, but only once. Therefore, the quotation so muni is sufficient to prove the exception. The pāda quoted by T, and Senart has not canonical support.

“na so kāsāvaṃ arahati”: occurs in Dhp 9 as follows: -

“anikkasāvo kāsāvaṃ yo vatthaṃ paridahessati
apeto damasaccena na so kāsāvam arahati”.

Rule 6: T B₁, S₁, S₂ read -ppamādo⁵² for -ppamodo, Senart’s reading -ppamodo seems to be based on incorrect spelling. The semi-colon after purisassa should be put after jantuno. “pabbajjaṃ kittayissāmi”: occurs in Sn 405 as follows:-

“pabbajjaṃ kittayissāmi yathā pabbaji cakkhumā
yathā vīmaṃsamāno so pabbajjaṃ samarocayi”.

Cd adds pañcadasī. S^a has pañcaddasi after catuddasī. B₁ reads cātuddasiṃ; pañcaddasiṃ, S₁, S₂: cātuddasī; pañcadasī, T: cātuddasī; pañcaddasī. The readings catuddasī and cātuddasī are found in the Mss but cātuddasī is more often used. B₁, T, S^a give two examples which seem to be closer to the original,⁵³ but Senart thinks that pañcadasī given by Cd is interpolated by some copyist. Therefore he omits pañcadasī in his edition. However, the words cātuddasī or cātuddasiṃ and pañcaddasī or pañcaddasiṃ occur in A I 144, 1-3 as follows:-

“cātuddasī pañcadasī yāva pakkhassa aṭṭhamī
pāṭihāriyapakkhañ ca aṭṭhaṅgasusamāgataṃ
uposathaṃ upavaseyya yo p’assa mādiso naro”.

Here we may note that the readings pañcaddasī and pañcadasī are found in the canonical texts.⁵⁴ According to the rule the double d is expected. Therefore, in order to keep with the rule, the reading pañcaddasiṃ or pañcaddasī should be accepted.

T, B₁, read cando in the place of panītataro ca. “idha modati” and “pecca modati” : occur in Dhp 16 as quoted above under I.3.3.

Rule 7: B₁, S₁, S₂, Cd, S^a add pubbesaṃ, T: sabbesaṃ after vagge kho. There is no paresaṃ after saraṃhā in any version. Senart has used Cd and S^a Mss which also add pubbesaṃ after vagge kho. He thinks that the reading pubbesaṃ is unintelligible to him, so he omits it. In this case, he adds paresaṃ after saramhā. T, B₁, S₁ read ese va for eso’va. The reading maccusele should be split into two words e.g. maccu and sele, therefore the sentence should be corrected to yatra ṭṭhitaṃ na-ppasaheyya and sele yathā pabbatamuddhani ṭṭhito. “yatra ṭṭhitaṃ na-ppasaheyya”: occurs in Dhp 128 (v.l.) as follows:-

“na antalikkhe na samuddamajjhe
na pabbatānaṃ vivaraṃ pavissa
na vijjatī so jagatippadeso
yatra ṭṭhitaṃ na-ppasaheyya maccu”.

“sele yathā pabbatamuddhani ṭṭhito”: occurs in Vin I 5, 33-34 as follows:-“sele yathā pabbatamuddhani ṭṭhito yathāpi passe janataṃ samantato”. H. Oldenberg’s reading ṭhito⁵⁵ would not support the rule explained in the vutti where the duplication (ṭṭhito) is expected, but the corresponding quotation found in It 33, 2-3 and D II, 39, 10-11, where the duplication is found, should be accepted. “cattāri ṭṭhānāni naro pamatto”: occurs in Dhp 309 as follows:-

“cattāri ṭhānāni naro pamatto
āpajjatī paradārūpasevī
apuññalābhaṃ na nikāmaseyyaṃ
nindaṃ tatiyaṃ nirayaṃ catutthaṃ”.

In this case, we may note that the vutti expects the duplication of ṭ, but Roman edition has no duplication of ṭ⁵⁶ which is not keeping with the vutti. We may accept the reading which contains the duplication of ṭ as the vutti expects it. T reads gaṇhāhi for gaṇhāti.

[1] Aṃ byañjane niggahītaṃ. 30

Niggahītaṃ kho byañjane pare aṃ iti hoti. Evaṃ vutte; taṃ sādhū ti paṭisuṇitvā.

(1) The niggahīta, followed by a consonant, becomes aṃ.

The niggahīta becomes aṃ, when a consonant follows. For example, ‘evaṃ vutte’ ‘taṃ sādhū ti paṭisuṇitvā’.

[2] Vaggantaṃ vā vagge. 31

Vaggabhūte byañjane pare niggahītaṃ kho vaggantaṃ vā pappoti. Tan nibbutaṃ; dhammañ care sucaritaṃ; cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ; santan tassa manaṃ hoti; taṅ kāruṇikaṃ; evaṅ kho bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ. Vāgahaṇena niggahītassa kho lakārādeso hoti. Pulliṅgaṃ. Vā ti kasmā? Na taṃ kammaṃ kataṃ sādhu.

(2) [The niggahīta, when followed by a consonant] is changed into the last letter of that vagga optionally.

The niggahīta, followed by a consonant, is optionally changed into the final letter of that vagga. For example, ‘tan nibbutaṃ’ ‘dhammañ care sucaritaṃ’ ‘cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ’ ‘santan tassa manaṃ hoti’ ‘taṅ kāruṇikaṃ’ ‘evaṅ kho bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ’. By the word ‘optionally’ the niggahīta can be changed into the sound l; for example, ‘pulliṅgaṃ’. Why optionally?: For, in the following example, this change is not found: ‘na taṃ kammaṃ kataṃ sādhu’.

[3] E-he ññaṃ. 32

Ekāre hakāre ca pare niggahītaṃ kho ñakāraṃ pappoti vā. Paccattañ ñeva parinibbāyissāmi; tañ ñev’ettha paṭipucchissāmi; evañ hi vo bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ; tañ hi tassa musā hoti. Vā ti kasmā? Evaṃ etaṃ abhiññāya; evaṃ hoti subhāsitaṃ.

(3) [The niggahīta], followed by e as well as h, is changed into ññ.

The niggahīta, when followed by e and h, is optionally changed into ñ. For example, ‘paccattañ ñeva parinibbāyissāmi’ ‘tañ ñev’ettha paṭipucchissāmi’ ‘evañ hi vo bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ’ ‘tañ hi tassa musā hoti’. Why optionally?: For, in the following example, this change is not found: ‘evaṃ etaṃ abhiññāya’ ‘evaṃ hoti subhāsitaṃ’.

[4] Sa-ye ca. 33

Niggahītaṃ kho yakāre pare saha yakārena ññakāraṃ pappoti vā. Saññogo; saññuttaṃ. Vā ti kasmā? Saṃyogo; saṃyuttaṃ.

(4) [The niggahīta], when followed by y, becomes assimilated to it and both together may become ññ.

The niggahīta, when followed by y, may together with the sound y be optionally changed into ññ. For example ‘saññogo’ ‘saññuttaṃ’. Why optionally? For, in the following examples, this change is not found: ‘saṃyogo’ ‘saṃyuttaṃ’.

[5] Ma-dā sare. 34

Niggahītassa kho sare pare makāra-dakārādesā honti vā. Tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ; etad avoca satthā. Vā ti kasmā? Akkocchi maṃ, avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ, ahāsi me.

(5) The niggahīta before a vowel may become m or d.

The niggahīta, when followed by a vowel, may optionally become m or d. For example ‘tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ’ ‘etad avoca satthā’. Why optionally?: For, in the following example, this change is not found: ‘akkocchi maṃ, avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ, ahāsi me’.

[6] Ya-va-ma-da-na-ta-ra-lā c’āgamā. 35

Sare pare yakāro vakāro makāro dakāro nakāro takāro rakāro lakāro imā āgamā honti vā. Na-y-imassa vijjā; yatha-y-idaṃ cittaṃ; migī bhantā v’udikkhati; sittā te lahu-m-essati; guru-m-essati; asso bhadro kasā-m-iva; samma-d-aññāvimuttānaṃ; manasā-d-aññāvimuttānaṃ; atta-d-atthaṃ abhiññāya; cira-n-nāyati; ito-n-āyati; yasmā-t-iha bhikkhave; tasmā-t-iha bhikkhave; ajja-t-agge pāṇupeto; sabbhi-r-eva samāsetha; āragge-r-iva sāsapo; sāsapo-r-iva āragge; cha-ḷ-abhiññā; cha-ḷ-āyatanaṃ. Vā ti kasmā? Evaṃ mah’iddhiyā esā; akocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ ajini maṃ ahāsi me; ajeyyo anugāmiyo. Casaddaggahaṇena ih’eva makārassa pakāro hoti; yathā: cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ; kakārassa ca dakāro hoti: sadatthapasuto siyā; dakārassa ca takāro hoti: sugato.

(6) [When a vowel follows] the sounds y, v, m, d, n, t, r, and l may be augmented.

Y, v, m, d, n, t, r and l are optionally augmented, when a vowel follows. For example ‘na-y-imassa vijjā’ ‘yatha-y-idaṃ cittaṃ’ ‘migī bhantā v’udikkhati’ ‘sittā te lahu-m-essati’ ‘guru-m-essati’ ‘asso bhadro kasā-m-iva’ ‘samma-d-aññāvimuttānaṃ’ ‘manasā-d-aññāvimuttānaṃ’ ‘atta-d-atthaṃ abhiññāya’ ‘ciran-n-āyati’ ‘ito-n-āyati’ ‘yasmā-t-iha bhikkhave’ ‘tasmā-t-iha bhikkhave’ ‘ajja-t-agge pāṇupeto’ ‘sabbhi-r-eva samāsetha’ ‘āragge-r-iva sāsapo’ ‘sāsapo-r-iva āragge’ ‘cha-ḷ-abhiññā’ ‘cha-ḷ-āyatanaṃ’. Why optionally: For, in the following examples this change is not found: ‘evaṃ mah’iddhiyā esā’ ‘akocchi maṃ, avadhi maṃ, ajini maṃ, ahāsi me’ ‘ajeyyo anugāmiyo’. By the word ‘also’ here m may be changed into p such as ‘cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ’. The sound k may be changed into d such as ‘sadatthapasuto siyā’. The sound d may be changed into t such as ‘sugato’.

[7] Kvaci o byañjane. 36

Byañjane pare kvaci okārāgamo hoti. Atippago kho tāva Sāvatthiyaṃ piṇḍāya carituṃ; parosahassaṃ bhikkhusataṃ. Kvacī ti kasmā? Etha passath’imaṃ lokaṃ; andhabhūto ayaṃ loko.

(7) When a consonant follows, sometimes o is augmented.

When followed by a consonant, o is sometimes inserted. For example ‘atippago kho tāva Sāvatthiyaṃ piṇḍāya carituṃ’ ‘parosahassaṃ bhikkhusataṃ’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following example, o augment is not inserted: ‘etha passath’imaṃ lokaṃ’ ‘andhabhūto ayaṃ loko’.

[8] Niggahītañ ca. 37

Niggahītañ ca āgamo hoti sare vā byañjane vā pare kvaci. Cakkhuṃ; udapādi avaṃsiro; yāvañ c’idha bhikkhave; purimaṃ jātiṃ; anuṃthūlāni sabbaso; manopubbaṅgamā dhammā. Kvacī ti kasmā? Idh’eva naṃ pasaṃsanti; pecca sagge ca modati; na hi etehi yānehi gaccheyya agataṃ disaṃ. Casaddaggahaṇena vissaddassa ca pakāro hoti: pacessati vicessati vā.

(8) Also (sometimes) the niggahīta is augmented.

The niggahīta may sometimes be inserted before a vowel or a consonant. For example ’cakkhuṃ ‘udapādi avaṃsiro’ ‘yāvañ c’idha bhikkhave’ ‘purimaṃ jātiṃ’ ‘anuṃthūlāni sabbaso’ ‘manopubbaṅgamā dhammā’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following examples, this change is not found: ‘idh’eva naṃ pasaṃsanti’ ‘pecca sagge ca modati’ ‘na hi etehi yānehi gaccheyya agataṃ disaṃ’. By the word ‘also’ the sound v may be changed into sound p, such as ‘paccessati’ or ‘vicessati’.

[9] Kvaci lopaṃ. 38

Niggahītaṃ kho sare pare kvaci lopaṃ pappoti. Tās’āhaṃ santike; vidūn’aggaṃ iti. Kvacī ti kasmā? Ahaṃ eva nūnabālo; etad atthaṃ viditvā.

(9) The niggahīta may sometimes be elided.

The niggahīta may sometimes be elided, when a vowel follows. For example ‘tās’āhaṃ santike’ ‘vidūn’aggaṃ iti’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following examples, this change is not found: ‘ahaṃ eva nūnabālo’ ‘etad atthaṃ viditvā’.

[10] Byañjane ca. 39

Niggahītaṃ kho byañjane pare kvaci lopaṃ pappoti. Ariyasaccāna dassanaṃ; etaṃ buddhāna sāsanaṃ. Kvacī ti kasmā? Etaṃ maṅgalaṃ uttamaṃ; vo vadāmi bhaddaṃ vo.

(10) [The niggahīta may] also [be elided] before a consonant.

The niggahīta may sometimes be elided, when a consonant follows. For example ‘ariyasaccāna dassanaṃ’ ’etaṃ buddhāna sāsanaṃ. Why sometimes?: For, in the following examples this change is not found: ‘etaṃ maṅgalaṃ uttanaṃ’ ‘vo vadāmi bhaddaṃ vo’.

[11] Paro vā saro. 40

Niggahītamhā paro saro lopaṃ pappoti vā. Abhinandan ti subhāsitaṃ uttattaṃ’va; yathābījaṃ’va dhaññaṃ. Vā ti kasmā? Ahaṃ eva nūnabālo; etad ahosi.

(11) After niggahīta, a vowel may optionally be elided.

The vowel after the niggahīta may optionally be elided. For example ‘abhinandan ti subhāsitaṃ uttattaṃ’va’ ‘yathābījaṃ’va dhaññaṃ’. Why optionally?: For, in the following example, this change is not found: ‘ahaṃ eva nūnabālo’ ‘etad ahosi’.

[12] Byañjano ca visaññogo. 41

Niggahītamhā parasmiṃ sare lutte yadi byañjano saṃyogo visaññogo hoti. Evaṃ’ sa te āsavā; pupphaṃ’ sā uppajji. Lutte ti kasmā? Evam assa vacaniyo; vidūn’aggam iti. Casaddaggahaṇena tiṇṇam pi byañjanānaṃ antare sarūpānaṃ kvaci lopo hoti. Yathā: agy āgāraṃ; vuty assa.

Iti sandhikappe catuttho kaṇḍo.

(12) [The vowel after the niggahīta having been elided] if there is a double consonant, it also becomes single.

When the vowel after the niggahīta has been elided, if there is a double consonant, it also becomes single. For example ‘evaṃ’ sa te āsavā’ ‘pupphaṃ’ sā uppajji’. Why elision?: For, in the following examples, this change is not found as the vowel is not elided: ‘evam assa vacaniyo’ ‘vidūn’aggam iti’. By the word ‘also’, in the case of three consonants being joined together, the middle homogeneous one is sometimes elided, such as ‘agy āgāraṃ’ ‘vut yassa’.

Here ends the fourth section in the chapter on the sandhi.

Notes I.4

This fourth section is mostly devoted to niggahītasandhi and covers twelve rules. Buddhappiya gives the meaning of niggahīta and the method of its pronunciation as follows:- “Spot bindu aṃ after a vowel is called niggahīta; having depended on a short vowel or having controlled the articulation (karaṇa) it is grasped (pronounced); so it is called niggahīta. Having controlled the articulator, it is pronounced with the mouth closed, following a vowel”.⁵⁷

According to Saddanīti “The sound used after vowels (a, i, u) and heard as aṃ, iṃ, uṃ is called niggahīta; such as a spot used after three short vowels in the following: “ahaṃ kevaṭṭagāmasmiṃ ahuṃ kevaṭṭadārako”. It should be known as niggahīta. But having depended on a short vowel it is grasped (and) pronounced in the usages concerning the teaching (of the Buddha)“.⁵⁸ A.P. Buddhadatta explains the niggahītasandhi as follows:- “When a word or a syllable ending in ṃ is joined to a word or a syllable beginning either with a vowel or a consonant (niggahītasandhi takes place)”⁵⁹.

Kaccāyana explains it in the present fourth section of the sandhi rules. According to Rūpasiddhi, the rule 6 falls under sarasandhi, and 7 under byañjanasandhi, the rest under niggahītasandhi.

In the fourth kaṇḍa, there are 12 rules, in the opening rule subject is niggahītaṃ, but it is put at the end. This may be because the fruit of grammatical action is aṃ. In the following rule the word niggahītaṃ is understood up to 33. In the rule 31 the word vagge occurs in the sense of secondary derivative as adjective of byañjane and therefore the word byañjane also is understood.

The word vā is governing up to 35. In rules 32 and 33 byañjane is understood, but vagge is cancelled. In the rule 33 we have ca. This ca stands for ya in the rule 32. If we compare the rules 19 and 20 from second kaṇḍa with the rules 32 and 33 in this kaṇḍa, we find that ca stands for the word occurring in the preceding rule.

The word niggahīta is understood from the rule 30, the word sare cancels the preceding sa-ye. In the rule 35 niggahīta is not understood and the word ca indicates sare. Here also Kaccāyana uses ca for the word occurring in the preceding rule. If we want to explain ca differently, we may say that sounds ma and da are also called āgama-s in addition to their being substitutes for niggahīta.

In the rule 36 Kaccāyana uses the word kvaci to cancel vā from the rule 31. In this special rule the vowel o is considered as āgama. Similarly in the following rule niggahīta also is considered as āgama, but in the rule 37 the word ca occurs which is grammatically significant according to the scheme of Kaccāyana. We may say that ca stands for byañjane and not for kvaci, also because in the rule 38 the word kvaci occurs again. It means in the rule 37 the word kvaci is not implied. Up to the rule 34 the word niggahīta was understood; in the rules 35 and 36 it was not understood. It again occurs to be understood from the rule 38 onwards.

The rules 36 and 37 could not be united into single rule because the word kvaci is not understood in the rule 37. In the rule 39 ca stands for lopaṃ occurring in the preceding rule. The word kvaci is continued in the rule 40. The word vā cancels kvaci. The word paro is shorter than niggahītamhā and therefore Kaccāyana has preferred it. In the rule 40, we have ca; this ca indicates additional grammatical operation. However, it could not be included in the previous rule, because in the rule 41 the word vā is not understood. The field of application of vā is limited and therefore it is used after kvaci.

Rule 1: “evaṃ vutte”: occurs in Vin III 6,3 as follows:- “evaṃ vutte verañjo brāhmaṇo bhagavantaṃ etad avoca”.

Rule 2: S₂ adds na naṃ duccaritañ care after dhammañ ca sucaritaṃ which occurs in Dhp 169 (v.l.) as follows:-

“dhammañ care sucaritaṃ na naṃ duccaritaṃ care
dhammacārī sukhaṃ seti asmiṃ loke paramhi ca”.

In this context, S₂ adds one more quotation. It may be noted here that some Dhp⁶⁰ versions do not show the conjunct ñca, but according to the rule, we must have ñca which is keeping with the vutti.

T, S₁, S₂ read cirampavāsiṃ for cirappavāsiṃ. “cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ”: occurs in Dhp 219 as follows:-

“cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ dūrato sotthiṃ āgataṃ
ñātimittā suhajjā ca abhinandanti āgataṃ”.

In this context, we may remark as follows:-

(1) According to the rule, we expect the change of niggahīta into m. T and B₁ quote Dhp 219 where the reading cirampavāsiṃ is expected, but we find pp in place of mp.⁶¹

(2) According to Saddanīti, the nasal m can be changed into p i.e. m + p > pp.⁶²

(3) we may note here that, in oral tradition, -siṃ and -pu also can be joined by changing niggahīta into ṃ; thus -pavāsimpurisaṃ.

“santan tassa manaṃ hoti”: occurs in Dhp 96 as follows:-

“santaṃ tassa manaṃ hoti santā vācā ca kamma ca
sammadaññāvimuttassa upasantassa tādino”.

In this context, we expect the change of niggahīta into n as told by the vutti. But Roman edition of Dhp does not show the change of niggahīta into n⁶³. Therefore the reading which contains the change of niggahīta into n e.g. santan tassa should be accepted.

T adds nāthaṃ after taṅ kāruṇikaṃ, T, B₁, S₁, Cd, S^a read puggalaṃ for pulliṅgaṃ. By the force of vā ‘option’ occurring in this rule, we expect the change of niggahīta into la, i.e. ṃ + l > ll e.g. puṃ + liṅgaṃ > pulliṅgaṃ. In this case, J. Minayeff remarks: “In the words sam, with; pum man; the niggahīta is assimilated to the following l; ex. (1) sallāpo, conversation; (2) pulliṅgaṃ, the masculine gender”.⁶⁴ The reading puggalaṃ found in some versions is not applicable to the rule which the commentator wants to establish. Saddanīti and Moggallāna-vyākaraṇa also read pulliṅgaṃ. Therefore, the reading pulliṅgaṃ seems to be better as it is expected by the vutti.

“na taṃ kammaṃ kataṃ sādhu” : occurs in Dhp 67 as follows:-

“na taṃ kammaṃ kataṃ sādhu yaṃ katvā anutappati
yassa assumukho rodaṃ vipākaṃ paṭisevati”.

Rule 3: T, B₁ read e-he ñaṃ for e-he ññaṃ. The double ñ⁶⁵ is not keeping with the vutti. Senart reads ñakāraṃ, and not ññakāraṃ. However, the double ñ used in the example is applied to another rule.⁶⁶ Buddhappiya also explains similarly.⁶⁷

“paccattañ ñeva parinibbāyissāmi”: occurs in M I 251, 31-252, 1 as follows:- “aparitassaṃ paccattañ ñeva parinibbāyati”. To correct the example in the vutti, we may replace -ssāmi by -ssati. However, it does not concern the rule directly. “tañ ñev’ettha paṭipucchissāmi”: occurs in D I 60, 3-5 as follows:- “tena hi mahārāja taṃ yev’ettha paṭipucchissāmi”. In this case, we may remark that we expect the change of niggahīta into ñ e.g. taṃ + eva > tañ ñeva. Therefore, according to the rule the reading tañ ñev’ettha⁶⁸ should be accepted in the place of taṃ yev’ettha which is not keeping with the rule. “evañ hi vo bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ” : occurs in M I 126, 27-29 as follows:- “dhammaṃ yeva sakkaronto dhammaṃ gurukaronto dhammaṃ apacāyamānā suvacā bhavissāma sovacassataṃ āpajjissāmā ti evaṃ hi bhikkhave sikkhitabbaṃ”. According to the rule, we expect the change of niggahīta into ñ e.g. evaṃ + hi > evañ hi which is keeping with the rule to be explained in the vutti.⁶⁹ “tañ hi tassa musā hoti”: occurs in Sn 757 (v.l.) as follows: -

“yena yena hi maññanti tato taṃ hoti aññathā
tañ hi tassa musā hoti mosadhammaṃ hi ittaraṃ”.

“evaṃ etaṃ abhiññāya”: occurs in Sn 1115 (v.l.) as follows: -

“ākiñcaññāsambhavaṃ ñatvā ‘nandī saṃyojanaṃ’ iti
evam etaṃ abhiññāya tato tattha vipassati
etaṃ ñāṇaṃ tathaṃ tassa brāhamaṇassa vusīmato’ ti”.

Rule 4: The expression saye should be split as shown by other versions.⁷⁰ T, B₁, S₁, S₂, Cd, S^a read ñakāraṃ for ññakāraṃ. This has been already discussed under the preceding rule.

Rule 5: “tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ”: occurs in Dhp 385 as follows:-

“yassa pāraṃ apāraṃ vā parāpāraṃ na vijjati
vītaddaraṃ visaññuttaṃ tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ”.

“etad avoca satthā”: occurs in S I 220, 20-21 as follows:- “idam avoca bhagavā. Idaṃ vatvāna sugato athāparaṃ etad avoca satthā”. “akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ” and “ajini maṃ ahāsi me”: occur in Dhp 3 as quoted under I.1.11 above.

Rule 6: T, S₂, read -ḷā for -lā, the reading ḷā is keeping with the example given by the vutti. T, B₁, S₁, S₂ read ime in the place of imā, according to grammatical rule, the reading ime agrees with āgamā which is nom. mas. pl., but imā is nom. fem. pl. Therefore, the reading imā should be corrected to ime.

“na-y-imassa vijjā”: occurs in Ja II 316, 22-25 as follows: -

“na-y-imassa vijjāmayam atthi kiñci
na bhandhavo no pana te sahāyo
atha kena vaṇṇena tirīṭavaccho
tedaṇḍiko bhuñjati aggapiṇḍaṃ”.

“yatha-y-idaṃ cittaṃ”: occurs in A I 5, 8-10 as follows:- “n’āhaṃ bhikkhave aññaṃ ekadhammam pi samanupassāmi yaṃ evaṃ abhāvitaṃ akammanīyaṃ hoti yatha-y-idaṃ cittaṃ”. “migī bhantā v’udikkhati”: occurs in Ja V 215, 12-13 as follows:-

“tadā hi brahatī sāmā āmuttamaṇikuṇḍalā
ekaccavasanā nārī migī bhantā v’udikkhati”.

It may be noted here that B₁ quotes from Ja V as the example of v augment, however, the commentary comments on migī bhantā v’udikkhati as “… sā uttamitthī tasmiṃ khaṇe maṃ udikkhantī bhayena vanaṃ pavisitvā puna nivattitvā luddaṃ udikkhantī bhantamigī ’va maṃ udikkhatī ti vadati” [Ja V 216, 20-22]. According to it, the v is not augment. The commentator takes v of v’udikkhati as iva (just as) e.g. migī + iva > migī’va to which the rule I.2.2. may be applied. In the foot-note B₁ remarks: “udāharaṇam idaṃ vicāretabbaṃ (this example should be taken into consideration)”.

“sittā te lahu-m-essati”: occurs in Dhp 369 as follows:-

“siñca bhikkhu imaṃ nāvaṃ
sittā te lahu-m-essati
chetvā rāgañ ca dosañ ca
tato nibbānam ehisi”.

B₁, S₁, S₂ add asittā te before garu-m-essati. S₂ reads bhaddo for bhadro, both were in use.⁷¹ “asso bhadro kasā-m-iva”: occurs in Dhp 143 A as follows:-

“hirīnisedho puriso koci lokasmi vijjati
yo nindaṃ appabodhati asso bhadro kasā-m-iva”.

“samma-d-aññāvimuttānaṃ”: occurs in Dhp 57 as follows:-

“tesaṃ sampannasīlānaṃ appamādavihārinaṃ
samma-d-aññā vimuttānaṃ māro maggaṃ na vindati”.

“atta-d-atthaṃ abhiññāya”: occurs in Dhp 166 as follows: -

“atta-d-atthaṃ paratthena bahunāpi na hāpaye
atta-d-attham abhiññāya sadatthapasuto siyā”.

T omits yasmā-t-iha bhikkhave.

“tasmā-t-iha bhikkhave”: occurs in S II 29, 8-10 as follows:- “tasmā-t-iha bhikkhave viriyaṃ ārabhatha appattassa pattiyā anadhigatassa adhigamāya asacchikatassa sacchikiriyāya”.

The reading pāṇupeto should be corrected to pāṇupetaṃ as it is in many versions. “ajja-t-agge pāṇupetaṃ”: occurs in D I 85, 14-15 as follows: - “upāsakaṃ maṃ bhagavā dhāretu ajja-t-agge pāṇupetaṃ saraṇaṃ gataṃ”. T adds saraṇaṃ gato’smi after ajja-t-agge pāṇupetaṃ. T quotes full sentence as found in D I. However, gato’smi should be corrected to gataṃ. “sabbhi-r-eva samāsetha”: occurs in S I 17, 3-4 as follows:-

“sabbhi-r-eva samāsetha sabbhi kubbetha santhavaṃ
sataṃ saddhammamaññāya seyyo hoti na pāpiyo”.

“āragge-r-iva sāsapo”: occurs in Dhp 401 as follows:-

“vāri pokkharapatte va āragge-r-iva sāsapo
yo na lippati kāmesu tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ”.

“sāsapo-r-iva āraggā”: occurs in Dhp 407 as follows:-

“yassa rāgo ca doso ca māno makkho ca pātito
sāsapo-r-iva āraggā tam ahaṃ brūmi brāhmaṇaṃ”.

The reading āragge should be corrected to āraggā as in the Dhp 407.⁷² “cha-ḷ-abhiññā”: occurs in Bv II 203 as follows: -

“cattāri satasahassāni cha-ḷ-abhiññā mah’iddhikā
dīpaṅkaraṃ lokaviduṃ parivārenti sabbadā”.

B₁, S₁ read sa-ḷ-āyatanaṃ for cha-ḷ-āyatanaṃ. Whatever reading we may accept, both prove the rule of ḷ augment. “sa-ḷ-āyatanaṃ”: occurs in Vin I 1,11 as follows:- “nāmarūpapaccayā sa-ḷ-āyatanaṃ sa-ḷ-āyatanapaccayā phasso”.

“evaṃ mah’iddhiyā”: occurs in Khp VIII 16 as follows:-

“evaṃ mah’atthikā esā yad idaṃ puññasampadā
tasmā dhīrā pasaṃsanti paṇḍitā katapuññataṃ”.

This is quoted by T. It may be noted here that the reading mah’iddhiyā is found in all the versions, but Roman edition has mah’itthikā which is based on the commentary. However, we find also the reading mah’iddhiyā⁷³ elsewhere in the Roman edition. We may accept either for, the absence of the augment between the two vowels is proved.

“akkocchi maṃ avadhi maṃ” and “ajini maṃ ahāsi me”: occur in Dhp 3 as quoted under I.1.11 above.

B₁ reads anugāmiko for anugāmiyo. The reading anugāmiyo found in some versions should be corrected to anugāmiko.⁷⁴ “ajeyyo anugāmiko”: occurs in Khp VII 8 as follows:-

“eso nidhi sunihito ajeyyo anugāmiko
pahāya gamanīyesu etaṃ ādāya gacchati”.

“cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ”: occurs in Dhp 219 as quoted under I.4.2 above. “sadatthapasuto siyā”: occurs in Dhp 166 as quoted above. “sugato”: occurs in Vin III 1, 12-15 as quoted under I.2.9. above.

Rule 7: “atippago kho tāva sāvatthiyaṃ piṇḍāya carituṃ”: occurs in A IV 34, 27-35, 1-3 as follows:- “atha kho āyasmato sāriputtassa etad ahosi ‘atippago kho tāva sāvatthiyaṃ piṇḍāya carituṃ; yan nūn āhaṃ yena aññatitthiyānaṃ paribbājakānaṃ ārāmo ten’upasaṅkameyyan’ ti”.

B₁ omits bhikkhusataṃ. “parosahassaṃ”: occurs in S I 192, 30-31 as follows:-

“parosahassaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ sugataṃ payirūpāsati
desentaṃ virajaṃ dhammaṃ nibbānaṃ akutobhayaṃ”.

It may be noted here that the reading bhikkhusataṃ in some versions seems to be close to the quotation from A IV. Bhikkhusataṃ should be corrected to bhikkhūnaṃ.

“etha passath’imaṃ lokaṃ”: occurs in Dhp 171 as follows:-

“etha passath’ imaṃ lokaṃ cittaṃ rājarath’ūpamaṃ
yattha bālā visīdanti n’tthi saṅgo vijānataṃ”.

B₁ reads andhībhūto for andhabhūto. “andhabhūto ayaṃ loko”: occurs in Dhp 174 as follows:-

“andhabhūto ayaṃ loko tanuk’ettha vipassati
sakunto jālamutto va appo saggāya gacchati”.

Rule 8: The semi-colon after cakkhuṃ should be put after udapādi. “cakkhuṃ udapādi”: occurs in Vin I, 11, 1-3 as follows:- “idaṃ dukkhaṃ ariyasaccan ti me bhikkhave pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṃ udapādi, ñāṇaṃ udapādi, paññā udapādi, vijjā udapādi, āloko udapādi”. “avaṃsiro”: occurs in Ja IV 103, 6-10 as follows:-

“idañ ca sutvā vacanaṃ adhammo
avaṃsiro patito uddhapādo
yuddhatthiko ce na labhāmi yuddhaṃ
ettāvatā hoti hato adhammo”.

T reads yāvañ c’idha bhikkhave purimajātiṃ, B₁: yāvañ c’idha bhikkhave purimaṃ jātiṃ sarāmi, Cd, S₁: yāvañ c’idha bhikkhave; purimaṃjāti, S₂: yāvañ c’idaṃ bhikkhave; purimaṃjāti. T and B₁ give one example only e.g. yāvañ c’idha, they do not consider purimajātiṃ or purimaṃ jātiṃ as an example expected by the vutti. However, Cd, S₁, S₂ and Senart split the citation into two and give two examples e.g. yāvañ c’idha and purimaṃjāti which seem to be closer to the original.⁷⁵ The word purimaṃ becomes the adjective of jātiṃ (acc. sing.). The rule expects the niggahīta augment which would better be found in purimaṃjāti (nom. sing.).

anuṃ- should be corrected to aṇuṃ-. “aṇuṃthūlāni sabbaso”: occurs in Dhp 265 as follows:-

“yo ca sameti pāpāni aṇuṃthūlāni sabbaso
samitattā hi pāpānaṃ samaṇo ti pavuccati”.

“manopubbaṅgamā dhammā”: occurs in Dhp 1 as quoted under I.3.1 above. “idh’eva naṃ pasaṃsanti” and “pecca sagge ca modati”: occur in Ja V 331, 9-10 as follows:-

“tāya naṃ paricariyāya mātāpitusu paṇḍitā
idha c’eva (naṃ) pasaṃsanti pecca sagge ca modati”.

“na hi etehi yānehi” and “gaccheyya agataṃ disaṃ”: occur in Dhp 323 as follows:-

“na hi etehi yānehi gaccheyya agataṃ disaṃ
yath’attanā sudantena danto dantena gacchati”.

“paccessati’ or ’vicessati”: occurs in Dhp 44 as quoted under I.3.2 above.

Rule 9: “tās’āhaṃ santike”: occurs in Vin IV 235, 28-29 as follows:- “tās’āhaṃ santike brāhmaṇacariyaṃ carissāmi”.

B₁ reads etam atthaṃ for etad atthaṃ, T, B₁ read viditvāna for viditvā, “etam atthaṃ viditvā”: occurs in Vin I 2, 1-2 as follows:- “atha kho bhagavā etam atthaṃ viditvā tāyaṃ velāyaṃ imaṃ udānaṃ udānesi”. The reading etad atthaṃ or etam atthaṃ may be accepted. The niggahīta is retained as exception proved by this rule.⁷⁶

Rule 10: “ariyasaccāna dassanaṃ” : occurs in Khp V 10 as follows:-

“tapo ca brahmacariyañ ca ariyasaccāna dassanaṃ
nibbānasacchikiriyā ca etaṃ maṅgalam uttamaṃ”.

“etaṃ buddhāna sāsanaṃ”: occurs in Dhp 183 as follows:-

“sabbapāpassa akaraṇaṃ kusalassa upasampadā
sacittapariyodapanaṃ etaṃ buddhāna sāsanaṃ”.

“etaṃ maṅgalaṃ uttamaṃ”: occurs in Khp V 2 as follows:-

“asevanā ca bālānaṃ paṇḍitānañ ca sevanā
pūjā ca pūjaneyyānaṃ etaṃ maṅgalam uttamaṃ”.

T, B₁, S₁, S₂ read taṃ vo vadāmi, T reads bhadraṃ vo, B₁ : bhaddan te for bhaddaṃ vo, “taṃ vo vadāmi, bhaddaṃ vo”: occurs in Ja III 387, 21-22 as follows:-

“taṃ vo vadāmi bhaddaṃ vo yāvant’ettha samāgatā
sabbe kataññuno hotha ciraṃ saggamhi ṭhassatha”.

The variant reading bhaddan te is also recorded. Here Senart omits taṃ before vo vadāmi, but taṃ should be prefixed to vo vadāmi, for, according to grammatical rule, the words te, me, vo, no are to be preceded by other words.⁷⁷ Therefore, the correction should be made as supported by many versions.

Rule 11: T, B₁, S₁, S₂, Cd read abhinandun ti for abhinandan ti, B₁ reads bhāsitaṃ in the place of subhāsitaṃ and puts it before abhinandun ti, “bhāsitaṃ abhinandun ti”: occurs in D I 46, 27-28 as follows:- “idam avoca bhagavā, attamanā te bhikkhū bhagavato bhāsitaṃ abhinandun ti”. Senart’s reading should be corrected by shifting semi-colon of uttaṃ’ va after subhāsitaṃ. Further abhinandun ti should be accepted in the place of abhinandan ti. However, we find the reading abhinandan ti in some manuscripts.⁷⁸ Here the reading abhinandun ti or abhinandan ti proves the rule of the elision of the vowel preceded by the niggahīta. But B₁ explains the canonical text more closely.

B₁ reads uttaṃ’va; yathābījaṃ’va; yathādhaññaṃ’ va, T: uttaṃ’va yathā bījaṃ dhaññaṃ na rūhati seems to be a sentence composed by the vutti. S₁, Senart: uttaṃ’va; yathābījaṃ’va dhaññaṃ, S₂: uttaṃ’ va; yathābījaṃ’va; dhaññaṃ’va. B₁, S₂ give three examples which seem to be closer to the original.⁷⁹

“etad ahosi”: occurs in Vin III 12, 4-5 as follows:- “disvān’assa etad ahosi yaṃ nūn āhaṃ pi dhammaṃ suṇeyyan ti”.

Rule 12: It may be noted here that keeping with visaññogo in the rule, the reading saññogo found in T, S₁ would be accepted for the vutti where B₁ reads ssaññogo.

“evaṃ’sa te āsavā”: occurs in M I 10, 21-22 as follows:- “paṭisevato evaṃ’sa te āsavā vighātapariḷāhā na honti”. “pupphaṃ’sā uppajji”: occurs in Vin III 18, 14-16 as follows:- “atha kho āyasmato sudinnassa purāṇadutiyikā na cirass’eva utunī ahosi, pupphaṃ’ sā uppajji”.

B₁, S₁, S₂ read evam assa in the place of evam assa vacaniyo. The reading vacaniyo should be corrected to vacanīyo, as discussed under I. 2.11. “evam assa” : occurs in Vin III 172, 33-34 as follows:- “so bhikkhu bhikkhūhi evam assa vacanīyo”.

T reads agy āgāre for agy āgāraṃ which occurs in Vin IV 109, 2-5 as follows:- “upasaṃkamitvā agy āgāraṃ pavisitvā tiṇasanthārakaṃ paññāpetvā nisīdi pallakaṃ ābhujitvā ujuṃ kāyaṃ panidhāya parimukhaṃ satiṃ upaṭṭhapetvā”. The reading agy āgāraṃ is closer to the original.⁸⁰

B₁, S₂ read paṭisanthāravuty ass for vuty assa. “paṭisanthāravuty assa”: occurs in Dhp 370 as quoted under I.2.10 above.

[1] Go sare puthass’āgamo kvaci. 42

Putha icc etassa sare pare kvaci gakārāgamo hoti. Puthag eva. Kvacī ti kasmā? putha eva.

(1) When a vowel follows, the sound g is sometimes augmented to putha.

The sound g is sometimes added to putha, when a vowel follows. For example ‘puthag eva.’ Why sometimes?: For, in the following occurrence, this change is not found : ‘putha eva’.

[2] Pāssa c’anto rasso. 43

Pā icc etassa sare pare kvaci gakārāgamo hoti, anto ca saro rasso hoti. Pag eva vuty assa. Kvacī ti kasmā? Pā eva vuty assa.

(2) The sound g is sometimes augmented (to the final of) pā (when a vowel follows); the final vowel in that case is shortened.

When a vowel follows, the sound g is sometimes added to pā, the final vowel (of pā) is shortened. For example ‘pag eva vuty assa’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following occurrence, this change is not found: ‘pā eva vuty assa’.

[3] Abbho abhi. 44

Abhi icc etassa sare pare abbho ādeso hoti. Abbh’udīritaṃ; abbhuggacchati.

(3) Abhi, followed by a vowel, is changed into abha.

When a vowel follows, abhi is changed into abha. For example ‘abbh’udīritaṃ’ ‘abbh’uggacchati’.

[4] Ajjho adhi. 45

Adhi icc’etassa sare pare ajjho ādeso hoti. Ajjh’okāso; ajjh’agamā.

(4) Adhi, followed by a vowel, is changed into ajjha.

When a vowel follows, adhi is changed into ajjha. For example ‘ajjh’okāso’ ‘ajjh’agamā’.

[5] Te na vā i-vaṇṇe. 46

Te ca kho abhi adhi icc ete i-vaṇṇe pare abbho ajjho iti vuttarūpā na honti vā. Abh’icchitaṃ; adh’īritaṃ. Vā ti kasmā? Abbh’īritaṃ; ajjh’iṇamutto.

(5) When i or ī follows, the abhi and adhi may not be changed into abbha and ajjha.

Abhi and adhi, when followed by i or ī, may not optionally be changed into abbha and ajjha. For example abh’icchitaṃ’ ‘adh’īritaṃ’. Why optionally?: For in the following examples, this change is found : ‘abbh’īritaṃ’ ‘ajjh’iṇamutto’.

[6] Atissa c’antassa. 47

Ati icc etassa antabhūtassa tisaddassa i-vaṇṇne pare Sabbo caṃ tī ti (I. 2. 8) vuttarūpā na honti. Atisigaṇo; atīritaṃ. Ivaṇṇe kasmā? Acc’antaṃ.

(6) [When i or ī follows,] the final ti of ati is not changed into c.

The final ti of ati, when followed by i or ī, is not changed into c as was laid down in the rule ‘Sabbo caṃ ti (I. 2. 8)’. For example ‘atisigaṇo’ ‘atīritaṃ’. Why i or ī having followed?: For, this rule is not applicable to the following example: ‘acc’antaṃ’.

[7] Kvaci paṭi patissa. 48

Pati icc etassa sare vā byañjane vā pare kvaci paṭiādeso hoti. Paṭ’aggi dhātabbo; paṭihaññati. Kvacī ti kasmā? Paccantimesu janapadesu; patilīyati; patirūpadesavāso ca.

(7) When a vowel or a consonant follows, pati is sometimes changed into paṭi.

Pati can sometimes be changed into paṭi, when a vowel or a consonant follows. For example ‘paṭ’aggi dhātabbo’ ‘paṭihaññati’. Why sometimes?: For in the following examples, this change is not found: ‘paccantimesu janapadesu’ ‘patilīyati’ ‘patirūpadesavāso ca’.

[8] Puthass’u byañjane. 49

Putha icc etassa anto saro byañjane pare ukāro hoti. Puthu-jjano; puthu-bhūtaṃ. Antaggahaṇena aputhassāpi sare pare antassa ukāro hoti. Manuññaṃ.

(8) The final vowel of putha, followed by a consonant, is changed into u.

When a consonant follows, the final vowel a of putha is changed into u. For example ‘puthu-jjano’ ‘puthu-bhūtaṃ’. By the word ‘final’, when a vowel follows, the final of words other than putha may also be changed into u. For example ‘manuññaṃ’.

[9] O avassa. 50

Ava icc etassa okārādeso hoti kvaci byañjane pare. Andhakārena onaddhā. Kvacī ti kasmā? Avasussatu me sarīre maṃsalohitaṃ.

(9) (Sometimes) the prefix ava, (followed by a consonant) is changed into o.

When a consonant follows, ava is sometimes changed into o. For example ‘andhakārena onaddhā’. Why sometimes?: For, in the following example, this change is not found: ‘avasussatu me sarīre maṃsalohitaṃ’.

[10] Anupadiṭṭhānaṃ vuttayogato. 51

Anupadiṭṭhānaṃ upasagganipātānaṃ sarasandhīhi byañjanasandhīhi vuttasandhīhi yathāyogaṃ yojetabbaṃ. Pāpanaṃ; parāyanaṃ; upāyanaṃ; upāhanaṃ; nyāyogo; nirupadhi; duvupasantaṃ; suvupasantaṃ; dvālayo; svālayo; durākhāto; svākhāto; udīritaṃ; samuddiṭṭhaṃ; viyaggaṃ; vijjhaggaṃ; byaggaṃ; avayāgamanaṃ; anveti; anūpaghāto; anacchariyā; parisesanā; parāmāso; evaṃ sare ca honti. Byañjane ca: Pariggaho; paggaho; pakkamo; parakkamo; nikkamo; nikkasāvo; nillayanaṃ; dullayanaṃ; dubbhikkhaṃ; dubbhuttaṃ; sandiṭṭhaṃ; duggaho; viggaho; suggaho; niggataṃ; evaṃ byañjane ca honti. Sesā ca sabbe yojetabbā.

Iti sandhikappe pañcamo kaṇḍo.

(10) The afore-mentioned rules of vowel-junction and consonantal junction are to be applied in a suitable manner to the prefixes and indeclinables not shown above.

Some prefixes and indeclinables are not shown above; the afore-mentioned rules of vowel-junction and consonantal junction should be applied to them in a suitable manner. For example ‘pāpanaṃ’ ‘parāyanaṃ’ ‘upāyanaṃ’ ‘upāhanaṃ’ ‘nyāyogo’ ‘nirupadhi’ ‘duvupasantaṃ’ ‘suvupasantaṃ’ ‘dvālayo’ ‘svālayo’ ‘durākhāto’ ‘svākhāto’ ‘udīritaṃ’ ‘samuddiṭṭhaṃ’ ‘viyaggaṃ’ ‘vijjhaggaṃ’ ‘byaggaṃ’ ‘avayāgamanaṃ’ ‘anveti’ ‘anūpaghāto’ ‘anacchariyā’ ‘parisesanā’ ‘parāmāso’; these are vowel junctions. ‘Pariggaho’ ‘paggaho’ ‘pakkamo’ ‘parakkamo’ ‘nikkamo’ ‘nikkasāvo’ ‘nillayanaṃ’ ‘dullayanaṃ’ ‘dubbhikkhaṃ’ ‘dubbhuttaṃ’ ‘sandiṭṭhaṃ’ ‘duggaho’ ‘viggaho’ ‘suggaho’ ‘niggataṃ’; these are consonantal junctions. The remaining may also be applied in the same way.

Here ends the fifth section in the chapter on the sandhi.

Notes I.5

This fifth section is devoted to all combinations and covers ten rules. In this section Kaccāyana does not classify sandhi in three groups. Buddhappiya classifies them as follows:- the rules 1-6 under sarasandhi, 7,8,9 under byañjanasandhi. In the last rule dealing mainly with the inseparable prefixes and indeclinables etc., Kaccāyana intends to indicate the extended application of his system over and above the Sandhi-kappa with reference to vowel-junctions as well as consonantal junctions.⁸¹ Here Buddhappiya classifies the last rule under niggahītasandhi. There are different methods of classification of sandhi given by the grammarians as well as modern scholars, but in the entire discussion of Sandhi-kappa belonging to the present study, we prefer to follow the method of classification given by Buddhappiya. Prof. A.K. Warder remarks: “A detained study of sandhi in Pali would not yield any very definite criteria for textual criticism, since clearly the usage was very fluid in almost every case alternatives existed either of which might be used at will by the poet”⁸².

In this last kaṇḍa, there are ten rules. This kaṇḍa begins with the rule about a particular expression, similarly the next rule also. In the rule 43 two grammatical operations are combined with the use of ca. However, a particular expression only is proved. The rule 44 is more wide, similarly the rule 45 also; both deal with prefixes. The rule 46 deals with an exception. The expression na vā cancels kvaci; it means in the rules 44 and 45 kvaci was governing. However, in literature we do not find abhi and adhi without change when followed by a vowel other than ī. This indicates that kvaci should be applied only to the rules 42 and 43.

In the rule 47 the word ca stands for na vā. In the rule 48 kvaci cancels na vā which is applicable to a particular prefix. In the rule 49 the word byañjane cancels i-vaṇṇe occurring in the rule 46. In the rule 48 according to the vutti both sare and byañjane are understood. This, however, is not keeping with the Kaccāyana’s arrangement of the rules. Similarly in the rule 49 kvaci seems to be continued, because it is not cancelled even in the rule 50 which also is applicable to a particular prefix. The rule 51 closes this Sandhi-kappa and therefore, it covers all conjuncts which are not accomplished in the first kappa.

Regarding the arrangement of the rules F. Mason points out: “Kachchayano’s treatise on Permutation is more unsatisfactory than any other part of his great work, because no rule is absolute. Nearly every rule has an opposite one to counteract it. Like the centripetal and centrifugal forces, they balance each other and the student is left in statu quo. One aphorism says: “When a vowel precedes a consonant, it remains unchanged sometimes;” another: “It is lengthened sometimes;” a third: “It is shortened sometimes;” and a fourth: “It is elided sometimes”.⁸³ Even if the arrangement of some rules composed by Kaccāyana is defective as pointed out by Mason, in the field of Pāli grammar Kaccāyana-vyākaraṇa is considered as the oldest one and very significant for one who wants to learn the Tipiṭaka in order to understand it perfectly.

Rule 2 : T, S₂ read c’ānto for c’anto.

“pageva”: occurs in Ja III 111, 19-21 as follows:-

“evam eva manussesu yo hoti seṭṭhasammato
so ce adhammaṃ carati pag eva itarā pajā
sabbaṃ raṭṭhaṃ dukkhaṃ seti rājā ce hoti dhammiko”.

“pā eva”: occurs in Vin II 281, 17-18 as follows:-

“āḷiṃ bandheyya pā eva puna saddhammasaṇṭhiti
upasampādetuṃ ayyā yathāvuddhābhivādanā”.

It may be noted here that B₁ has given the quotations from Jātaka, and Vinaya; they support the rule about pag eva and pā eva only. Pag eva vuty assa or pā eva vuty assa, seems to be a sentence composed by the vutti in order to give an example for this rule.

Rule 3: “abbh’uggacchati”: occurs in M I 126, 10-11 as follows:- “atha kho bhikkhave vedehikāya gahapatāniyā aparena samayena evaṃ pāpako kittisaddo abbh’uggañchi”.

Rule 4: B₁ read ajjh’okāse for ajjh’okāso, T reads ajjh’aggamā B₁ :ajjh’āgamā for ajjh’agamā. The changing of abhi into ajjha has been proved, but the readings ajjh’okāse and ajjh’āgamā seem to be closer to the original.⁸⁴ “ajjh’okāse”: occurs in Vin IV 39, 14-17 as follows:- “tena kho pana samayena bhikkhū hemantike kāle ajjh’okāse senāsanaṃ paññāpetvā kāyaṃ otāpento kāle ārocite taṃ pakkamantā n’eva uddhariṃsu na uddharāpesuṃ anāpucchā pakkamiṃsu”.

Rule 5: Cd, S₁, S₂, read abh’ijjhitaṃ for abh’icchitaṃ, both might be in use. But the reading abh’icchitaṃ is better and seems to be closer to the original.⁸⁵ Here PED and CPD give abh’ijjhitaṃ as variant reading.⁸⁶

Rule 6: T, S₂ read c’āntassa for c’antassa.

“accantaṃ”: occurs in Sp 1, 16-17 as follows:-

“icc evam accantanamassaneyyaṃ
namassamāno ratanattayaṃ yaṃ”.

Rule 7: T, B₁, S₁, S₂, Cd, S^a read dātabbo for dhātabbo, therefore, dhātabbo should be corrected to dātabbo. “paṭ’aggi dātabbo”: occurs in Vin II 138, 22-23 as follows:- “anujānāmi bhikkhave davaḍāhe ḍayhamāne paṭ’aggiṃ dātuṃ parittaṃ kātun ti”. In the quotation we have paṭ’aggiṃ dātuṃ for which in the vutti we have paṭ’aggi dātabbo. Thus the quotation cannot be traced in the form as expected by the vutti. But the changing of pati into paṭi has been proved by this rule.

“paṭihaññati”: occurs in Vin II 147, 33 as quoted under I.3.3 above.

“paccantime janapadesu”: occurs in Vin I 197, 30-31 as follows:- “anujānāmi bhikkhave evarūpesu paccantimesu janapadesu vinayadharapañcamena gaṇena upasampadaṃ”. “patilīyati”: occurs in A IV 48, 3-5 as quoted under I.3.3 above. “patirūpadesavāso ca” : occurs in Khp V 3 as follows:-

“patirūpadesavāso ca pubbe ca katapuññatā
attasammāpaṇidhi ca etaṃ maṅgalam uttamaṃ”.

Rule 8: “puthu-jjano”: occurs in D I 3, 31-33 as follows:- “appamattakaṃ kho pan’etaṃ bhikkhave oramattakaṃ sīlamattakaṃ yena puthu-jjano tathāgatassa vaṇṇaṃ vadamāno vadeyya”. “puthu-bhūtaṃ”: occurs in D II 106, 8-10 as follows:- “na tāv’āhaṃ pāpima parinibbāyissāmi yāva me idaṃ brahmacariyaṃ na iddhañ c’eva bhavissati phītañ ca vitthārikaṃ bāhujanaṃ puthubhūtaṃ”. “manuññaṃ”: occurs in Vv 1242 as follows:-

“adhiccaladdhaṃ pariṇāmajante
sayaṃ kataṃ udāhu devehi dinnaṃ
pucchanti taṃ vāṇijā satthavāhā
kathaṃ tayā laddham’idaṃ manuññan ti”.

Rule 9: “andhakārena onaddhā” : occurs in Dhp 146 as follows:-

“ko nu hāso kim ānando niccaṃ pajjalite sati
andhakārena onaddhā padīpaṃ na gavessatha”.

“avasussatu me sarīre maṃsalohitaṃ”: occurs in M I 481, 1-3 as follows:- “kāmaṃ taco ca nahāru ca aṭṭhī ca avasissatu sarīre upasussatu maṃsalohitaṃ”. Even if in avasussatu the exception of the rule is proved, still the canonical expression to be proved is avasissatu as the quotation shows. However, both are applicable to the exception told by the vutti.

Rule 10: “pāpanaṃ”: occurs in Vibh-a 485, 12 as follows:- “pāpanā ti ādāyakattassa avaṇṇassa vā pāpanaṃ”.

B₁ reads parāyaṇaṃ for parāyanaṃ. Here PED gives two forms,⁸⁷ but the reading parāyanaṃ is often found and therefore may be closer to the original.⁸⁸ “parāyanaṃ”: occurs in Sn 377 as follows:-

“tuvaṃ hi lokassa sadevakassa
gatiṃ pajānāsi parāyanañ ca
na t’atthi tulyo nipuṇatthadassī
tuvaṃ hi buddhaṃ pavaraṃ vadanti”.

The reading parāyaṇaṃ seems to be Sanskritised form.⁸⁹ “upāhanaṃ”: occurs in Vin I 185, 14 as follows:- “anujānāmi te soṇa ekapalāsikaṃ upāhanaṃ”.

“nirupadhi”: occurs in Ud 59, 33-34 as follows:-

“disvā ādīnavaṃ loke ñatvā dhammaṃ nirūpadhi
ariyo na ramati pāpe pāpe na ramati suci”.

T, B₁, S₁, S₂, Cd, S^a add anubodho after nirupadhi. However, the reading anubodho is very significant and closer to the original,⁹⁰ for, it occurs in As 254, 5-6 (v.l.) as follows:- “anurūpato dhamme bujjhatī ti anubodho”.

S^a, T read durākhyāto, B₁: durākhyātaṃ, S₁: durākkhātaṃ, S₂: durakkhātaṃ for durākhāto. They all are applicable to the vowel-junction. Here the splitting dura + ākhyāto, [ākhyātaṃ, akkhātaṃ or ākhāto] may be accepted, but the reading durākhyātaṃ is closer to the original.⁹¹

T, B₁, read svākhyāto, S₁, S₂, Cd; svākkhāto, but the reading svākhyāto is closer to the original.⁹² “udīritaṃ”: occurs in Ud 45, 28-31 as follows:-

“tudanti vācāya janā asaññatā
parehi saṅgāmagataṃ va kuñjaraṃ
sutvāna vākyaṃ pharusaṃ udīritaṃ
abhivāsaye bhikkhu aduṭṭhacitto”.

“anveti” : occurs in Dhp 1 as quoted under I.3.1 above.

“anupaghāto” : occurs in Dhp 185 as follows:-

“anupavādo anupaghāto pātimokkhe ca saṃvaro
mattaññutā ca bhattasmiṃ pantañ ca sayanāsanaṃ
adhicitte ca āyogo etaṃ buddhāna sāsanaṃ”.

B₁ reads anacchariyaṃ, S₁, S₂ :anacchariyo. The reading anacchariyā is closer to the original.⁹³ B₁ quotes anacchriyaṃ occurring in Vin II 17, 31-33 as follows:- “anacchariyaṃ kho pan’etaṃ bhante yaṃ ayyo suddhammo punad eva macchikāsaṇḍaṃ paccāgaccheyya”.

The reading parisesanā should be corrected to pariyesanā. “pariyesanā”: occurs in A II 247, 18 as follows:- “catasso imā bhikkhave anariyapariyesanā”. “parāmāso” : occurs in Dhs 381 as follows:- “…..gāho paṭiggāho abhiniveso parāmāso kummaggo micchāpatho micchattaṃ titthāyatanaṃ vipariyesagāho”. “pariggaho”: occurs in D II 58, 33-35 as follows:- “vinicchayaṃ paṭicca chandarāgo, chandarāgaṃ paṭicca ajjhosānaṃ, ajjhosānaṃ paṭicca pariggaho, pariggahaṃ paṭicca macchariyaṃ”. “paggaho” : occurs in Paṭis II 101, 13 as follows:- “paggaho upajjati”. “parakkamo” and “nikkamo”: occur in Dhs 376 as follows:- “yo tasmiṃ samaye cetasiko viriyārambho nikkamo parakkamo uyyāmo vāyāmo….”. “dubbhikkhaṃ”: occurs in Vin III 7, 6-8 as follows:- “etarahi bhante verañjā dubbhikkhā dvīhitikā setaṭṭhikā salākāvuttā na sukarā uñchena paggahena yāpetuṃ”.

B₁, S₁, S₂, Cd read dubbuttaṃ S^a : dubbhūtaṃ, T has two words, namely, dubbhūtaṃ and dubbuttaṃ. The reading dubbuttaṃ is better and seems to be closer to the original.⁹⁴

“sandiṭṭhaṃ”: occurs in Vin III 87, 3-5 as follows:- “tena kho pana samayena sambahulā sandiṭṭhā sambhattā bhikkhū vaggumudāya nadiyā tīre vassaṃ upagacchiṃsu”.

S₁, S₂ add niggaho after duggaho, Cd reads niggaho in the place of viggaho and viggaho for suggaho. B₁, S₁, S₂ omit suggaho, B₁ reads niggato for niggataṃ, B₁, S₁, S₂ add three examples, namely, abhikkamo, paṭikkamo and atikkamo in the vutti. T adds niggaho after niggataṃ. They all exemplify the consonantal-junction.

“viggaho”: occurs in D I 236, 34-36 as follows:- “ettha bho gotama atth’eva viggaho, atthi vivādo, atthi nānāvādo ti”. “niggato”: occurs in Pj II 489, 17 as follows:- “niggamā ti niggato”. “abhikkamo” and “paṭikkamo”: occur in M III 259, 4-5 as follows:- “paṭikkamo’sānaṃ paññāyati no abhikkamo”. “atikkamo”: occurs in Ja VI 60, 2-4 as follows:-

“ko nu te bhagavā satthā kass’etaṃ vacanaṃ suciṃ
na hi kappaṃ vā vijjaṃ vā pacakkhāya rathesabha
samaṇaṃ āhu vattantaṃ yathā dukkhass’atikkamo”.

Footnotes

1. “saṃ pubbo dhā dhāraṇe” Abh-sūci, s.v. sandhi. ↩

2. “union, junction, breach, break, hole, chasm, a window, joint, piece, link, connection, combination, euphonic junction, euphony, agreement” PED, s.v. sandhi, cf. MW, s.v. saṃ-dhi. ↩

3. “sandhīyanti ettha padāni akkharāni cā ti sandhi” Sadd 611, 20. ↩

4. NPC II p.3, see also EPG p.13, GPL p.3, PGP p.5. ↩

5. “Api c’ettha dvidhā cā pi saṃkhepā sandhi icchito / padānaṃ padasandhi ca vaṇṇānaṃ vaṇṇasandhi ca; / tesu “tatrāyam” icc ādi padasandhī ti dīpaye, / vaṇṇasandhī ti dīpeyya” sāhu; khatyā” ti ādikaṃ” Sadd 610, 29-32, see also EPG pp. 13-14, PGR p. 60, SPL p.59, CP III pp.219-224, OSP pp. 101 ff. ↩

6. See NPC II, p. 3, but EPG p. 14 and PGP p. 6: (1) vowel sandhi (2) vomissakasandhi (mixed sandhi) (3) niggahītasandhi, here EPG and PGP consider vomissakasandhi as byañjanasandhi, and EPG p.15 further remarks: “Strictly speaking, there is no consonantal sandhi in Pāli, because no word in it, as a rule, ends in a consonant, excepting ṃ”, see also SPL p. 59. ↩

7. See Mogg pp. 1-7. ↩

8. Rūp pp. 1-36. ↩

9. “saññāvidhānaṃ sarasandhi sandhi / nisedhanaṃ byañjanasandhi sandhi / yo niggahītassa ca sandhikappe / sunicchayo so hi may’ettha vutto” Rūp 36, 16-19. ↩

10. “sarasandhi-niggahīta-sara-vyañjanasandhayo / sādhāraṇo ca sandhī ti catudh’evaṃ pakāsito” Sadd 610, 17-18. ↩

11. “tesu gajjādibhedesu ganthesu pubbaviññuhi / saravyañjana-vomissavasā sandhi tidhā mato” ibid., 610, 13-14. ↩

12. “missībhūtānaṃ saravyañjanādīnaṃ sandhi vomissasandhi; tathā hi saravyañjananiggahītādesalopakaraṇavasena sādhito sandhi vomissasandhī ti vuccati, so eva saravyañjananiggahītādesalopaviparītādivasena anekasaṅgahattā sādhāraṇasandhī ti ca vuccati” ibid., 627, 24-28, even if R.C. Childers (OSP p.100) has divided it into three kinds: (1) vowel sandhi (2) consonant sandhi (3) mixed sandhi, in this case, we may remark that he follows Aggavaṃsa’s method, see also GPL p. 3, PM p.45. ↩

13. PKG p.3. ↩

14. See PED and CPD s.v. akkhara, MW, s.v. akshara. ↩

15. “atisukhumagambhīrasaṃketesu parivattamānā pi kharattaṃ thaddhabhāvaṃ na gacchanti ativiya mudū hutvā atthavasena na kharanti, tasmā akkharā ti vuccanti” Sadd 605, 1-4. ↩

16. “na kkharantī ti akkharā” ibid., 605, 4-5, Nyp 7,11, Rūp 2, 11, see also Abh-sūci s.v. akkhara. ↩

17. “Yo niruttiṃ na sikkheyya sikkhanto piṭakattayaṃ / pade pade vikaṅkheyya vane andhagajo yathā” Mogg-pṭ 16, 5-6. ↩

18. See fn. 114 of Introduction. ↩

19. “adhikakkharavantāni ekatālīsato ito / na Buddhavacanānī ti dīpet’ācariyāsabho” Rūp 3,13-14. ↩

20. “… Rūpasiddhiyaṃ likhitaṃ imaṃ gāthaṃ vatvā keci aviññuno rassa-ekāra-okārā ekacattālīsato adhikā …vippalapanti” Pds-ṭ 39, 8-10. ↩

21. PKG p.5. ↩

22. PGR p. 2 fn. 3. ↩

23. PED, s.v. gantha. ↩

24. Vism pre. p.X. ↩

25. “atthaṃ gandheti sūcetī ti gandho, gandhīyati vā attho sūcīyati etena ettha vā ti gandho sakalaṃ pakaraṇaṃ” Maṇis-ṭ I 69, 10-12. ↩

26. “gandho thoke ghāyanīye ….” Abh 1129, cf. MW s.v. gandha. ↩

27. See PED, s.v. sara, cf. MW s.v. sara, see also Abh-sūci s.v. sara. ↩

28. “saranti suyyamānataṃ gacchantī ti sarā, attasaṃsaṭṭhāni vā vyañjanāni sārenti suyyamānataṃ gamentī ti pi sarā; neruttikā pana vadanti ’sayaṃ rājantī ti sa-rā’ti” Sadd 605, 13-15. ↩

29. “saranti gacchantī ti sarā, byañjane sārentī tipi sarā” Rūp 4, 1-2. ↩

30. “sarānaṃ saresu vā sandhi sarasandhi. Ettha ca sarādesalopakaraṇavasena sādhito sandhi sarasandhī ti vuccati” Sadd 611, 21-22. ↩

31. NPC II p.3, see also EPG p.14, PGP p. 5. ↩

32. “kvacisaddo ca navāsaddo ca ime dve samānatthā” Nyp 34, 1, “navāsaddo kvacisaddena samānattho” Sdp 14, 11, “navāsaddo kvacisaddapariyāyo” Rūp 13, 12. ↩

33. Nyp also reads ty āssa cf. Sadd 620, 5. ↩

34. CP III p. 220, see also PGR pp. 6, 63, ITP p.214, PM p. 47, KPG p. 26, OSP pp. 107-8. ↩

35. Nyp also reads ne’nāgatā. ↩

36. Nyp has proved this exception and split into two examples as ne + anāgatā and ne + ettha. ↩

37. See PGR pp.39-40, EPG p. 31. ↩

38. “tro tassā tipi paṭhanti, tro ttassā ti pāṭho yeva sundaro” Sdp 14, 1-2. cf. Sadd 622, 8. ↩

39. Nyp also reads sake. ↩

40. Nyp also reads niyako. ↩

41. See PED, s.v. byañjana, cf. MW s.v. vyañjana, see also SPW s.v. vyañjana, EPG p.4 fn. 2. ↩

42. “byañjiyati etehi attho ti byañjanā” Rūp 5, 13, Nyp 18, 12. ↩

43. “dhī bhū go ti ādisu saraṃ nissāya, buddho bhagavā ti ādisu pana sasaraṃ vaṇṇasamudāyaṃ nissāya atthaṃ vyañjayanti pākaṭaṃ karontī ti vyañjanā; saddhammaneruttikā pana “saraṃ janentī ti vyañjanāni” ti vadanti, “sare anugacchantī ti vyañjanānī” ti vedavidū” Sadd 606, 2-7. ↩

44. “vyañjanānaṃ vyañjanesu vā sandhi vyañjanasandhi; api ca vyañjanādesalopakaraṇavasena sādhito sandhi vyañjanasandhī ti vuccati” ibid., 619, 27-620, 1-2. ↩

45. NPC II p.3, see also EPG p. 14, PGP p. 6. ↩

46. Cf. PGR p.71. ↩

47. PGR p. 9. ↩

48. PED, s.v. paṭhavī. ↩

49. In a foot-note of Dhp De the reading vicessati is also recorded. ↩

50. PED, s.v. pati, see also PGR p. 34. ↩

51. “vede sajjhāyantehi paṭhamaṃ ajjhetabbo sāvittī chandaso mukhan ti vuttā” Pj II 456, 21-22, see also PED, s.v. sāvittī. ↩

52. Nyp also reads idha ppamādo. ↩

53. Nyp also gives two examples e.g. cātuddasī; pañcaddasī. ↩

54. See PTC, s.v. pañcadasī. ↩

55. In Vin I De the duplication (ṭṭhito) is shown. ↩

56. Even if in Dhp De the duplication is not shown. ↩

57. “aṃ iti yaṃ akārato paraṃ vuttaṃ bindu, taṃ niggahitaṃ nāma hoti. Rassasaraṃ nissāya gayhati, karaṇaṃ niggahitvā gayhatī ti vā niggahitaṃ. “karaṇaṃ niggahitvāna mukhen’āvivaṭena yaṃ / vuccate niggahitan ti vuttaṃ bindu sarānugaṃ” Rūp 6, 8-11. ↩

58. “yaṃ saddarūpaṃ aṃ iṃ uṃ iti sarato paraṃ hutvā suyyati, taṃ niggahītaṃ nāma bhavati, seyyathīdaṃ: “ahaṃ kevaṭṭagāmasmiṃ ahuṃ kevaṭṭadārako” ti’cc ādisu rassattayato paraṃ bindu niggahītaṃ nāmā ti daṭṭhabbaṃ. Taṃ pana sāsanikapayogavasena rassasaraṃ nissāya gayhati uccārīyatī ti niggahītan ti vuccati” Sadd 606, 17-23. ↩

59. NPC II p.3, see also EPG p. 14, PGP p.6. ↩

60. Even in Dhp De the conjunct ñca is not found. ↩

61. Even in Dhp De we find the reading cirappavāsiṃ. ↩

62. “po massa. “Cirappavāsiṃ purisaṃ; hatthippabhinnaṃ viya aṃkusaggaho” Sadd 623, 13-14, see also the vutti of I. 4.6, PM p. 48. ↩

63. Even in Dhp De the change of niggahīta into n is not found. ↩

64. PG p. 67, see also PGP p. 18, NPC II p. 22, PM p. 49. ↩

65. “e-he ti ekaṃ padaṃ, ñan ti ekaṃ padan ti dvipam idaṃ suttaṃ” Nyp 47, 6-7. ↩

66. “…iminā ekāra-hakāre pare niggahītassa ñakāraṃ katvā tassa paradvebhāvo ṭhāne (I.3.6) ti dvebhāvañ ca katvā parakkharaṃ netvā rūpasiddhi veditabbā” ibid., 47, 20-22. ↩

67. “ekāre hakāre ca pare niggahitaṃ kho ñakāraṃ pappoti vā, ekāre ñādesassa dvibhāvo” Rūp 32,7-8. ↩

68. In D I De we find the reading tañ ñev’ettha which is keeping with the rule to be explained in the vutti. ↩

69. In M I De ñ is not found. ↩

70. “sa iti ekaṃ padaṃ, ye iti ekaṃ padaṃ, cā ti ekaṃ padan ti tipadam’idaṃ suttaṃ” Nyp 47, 29-30. ↩

71. See PGR p. 44. ↩

72. Dhp De has āraggā. ↩

73. Nyp also reads mah’iddhiyā. In Khp De we find the reading mah’itthikā, but the reading mah’iddhiyā is not recorded in the foot-note. ↩

74. In Khp De we find the reading anugāmiko. ↩

75. Nyp has two examples i.e. yāvañ c’idha and purimaṃjāti. ↩

76. See, I. 4. 5. ↩

77. See II. 2. 28 and II. 2. 32. ↩

78. Nyp also reads abhinandan ti. In D I 46 (v.l.) the reading abhinandan ti is found. ↩

79. Nyp also gives three examples. ↩

80. Nyp also reads agy āgāraṃ. ↩

81. “idha avuttavisesānampi vuttanayātidesatthamatidesam āha” Rūp 36, 5. ↩

82. PM p. 43. ↩

83. PKG p. 9. ↩

84. Nyp reads also ajjh’okāse and ajjh’āgamā. ↩

85. Nyp also reads abh’icchitaṃ. ↩

86. PED and CPD, s.v. abh’icchitaṃ. ↩

87. PED, s.v. parāyanaṃ. ↩

88. Nyp also reads parāyanaṃ. ↩

89. See MW, s.v. parāyaṇaṃ. ↩

90. Nyp also has anubodho. ↩

91. Nyp also reads durākhyātaṃ. ↩

92. Nyp also reads svākhyāto. ↩

93. Nyp also reads anacchariyā. ↩

94. Nyp also reads dubbuttaṃ. ↩